Ionizing radiation in medical diagnostics, material analysis and radiotherapy of cancer

3. Applications of ionizing radiation
- nuclear and radiation methods -
3.1. Nuclear and radiation methods
3.2. X-ray diagnostics
3.3. Radiation measurement of mechanical properties of materials
3.4. Radiation analytical methods of materials
3.5. Radioisotope tracking methods
3.6. Radiotherapy
3.7. Technological use of radiation

3.1. Nuclear and radiation methods - general properties
In this chapter we will try to give a brief overview of radioisotope measurement methods and applications of ionizing radiation in various fields of science and technology, health care, industry, ecology, etc. Before we discuss specific radiation methods, we will mention some common characteristics of these methods.
Note + apology: The application methods of ionizing radiation are discussed here from a physical point of view , without details of technical solutions, rather than from the point of view of individual special fields of application; the exceptions are methods of X-ray diagnostics, radiotherapy and especially nuclear medicine (where reference is made to a detailed and complete explanation - Chapter 4 " Radioisotope scintigraphy "). Therefore, please othe leniency of experts for specific methods, when they do not find a number of important technical or medical aspects for practical use in their field; I also apologize for any inaccuracies and excessive simplifications in these aspects. I focus here mainly on the interpretation of the physical nature .
  Radioisotope and radiation methods have some important advantages :

• Nuclear processes are practically independent of the usual external conditions (see §1.2, section " General laws of atomic nucleus transformation ") such as temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.
• Radiation can penetrate to places otherwise inaccessible. Methods based on penetrating gamma radiation enable non-contact measurement "remotely", without the need for sampling, in otherwise inaccessible places , non-destructive and non-invasive measurement of processes within the organism, etc. The same is true for non-destructive radiation influencing events in inaccessible places - eg radiotherapy (§3.6).
• Some radiation methods are characterized by very high sensitivity (eg neutron activation analysis).
• Virtually all nuclear and radiation methods use electronic radiation detection . When detecting radiation, the measured quantities are converted into electrical signals that can be efficiently and precisely processed by electronic methods , including digital computer evaluation.

In addition to higher technical and cost demands, a certain disadvantage of radiation methods may be the risk of harmful effects of ionizing radiation on materials and human health; however, this risk can be eliminated or minimized by ensuring appropriate radiation protection - see Chapter 5 " Biological effects of radiation - radiation protection ".

Does the material glow or not after the application of radiation?
This is a frequently discussed issue, especially in the general public. It is argued that " During irradiation, a given substance (including possibly the human body) absorbed radiant energy, which should then be radiated! ". In the vast majority of common applications of radiation, this seemingly logical argument is flawed . Photon radiation, X, gamma, passes through a substance at the speed of light (corpuscular radiation only a little slower) and from the moment it leaves the substance it no longer occurs in it . Only physico-chemical (or later biological) effects of radiation can persist :
¨ When irradiated with X, g, b radiation with energies less than about 10MeV, excitations and ionizations of the atoms of the irradiated substance occur, accompanied by secondary radiation and possibly. chemical radiation effects. Thus, during exposure, the irradiated object emits secondary radiation, the intensity of which represents a fraction of a percentage of the intensity of the primary beam. After the end of the radiation flow, deexcitation and recombination occur almost immediately (within about 10 ^-8 sec.) And the substance does not radiate at all . This radiation behaves like light to a certain extent: when we stop the irradiation ("go out"), the radiation immediately disappears (it is "dark"). Thus , the patient does not shine after X-ray examination or after normal radiotherapeutic irradiation of gamma or X, does not shine objects after X-ray fluorescence analysis or defectoscopy, does not shine materials after radiation sterilization.
¨ A more complex situation can occur with irradiation with neutron radiation (even at low energies - slow neutrons) and in general with high-energy radiation , the quantum of which has an energy higher than about 10MeV. In this case, the radiation can cause nuclear reactions , in which radionuclides can be formed in originally non-radioactive materials . Such a substance may "glow" for some time after irradiation. Not because "accumulated energy" is emitted, but because nuclear activation has taken placematerial. Thus, the samples glow after neutron activation analysis, targets irradiated in nuclear reactors and accelerators glow strongly, weakly and for a short time also patients after radiotherapy with radiation higher than 10MeV, more significantly after hadron radiotherapy (see §3.6 " Radiotherapy ", part " Hadron radiotherapy "). And, of course , patients shine after the application of a radioactive substance in nuclear medicine (the intensity of this radiation decreases exponentially with the rate given by the half-life of the radionuclide in question and the rate of its excretion from the body).

Types of radiation methods
For applications of ionizing radiation, closed emitters - X-ray, radioisotope, particle accelerators, and open emitters - radioactive liquids, gases or aerosols are used. All applications of ionizing radiation can be divided into two basic groups :

1. Radiation measuring, analytical and detection methods
This large group of methods uses the properties of ionizing radiation to measure certain physical and technical quantities, to analyze the properties of substances and to study and detect certain processes in natural and industrial systems or in living organisms (see also section below). " Introskopy ") .
  In terms of the nature of primary and secondary radiation, as well as the relative position of the radiation source, the analyzed object and the detector, these methods can be further divided into three groups :

• a) Absorption transmission measurements
  A large group of applications of ionizing radiation is based on measuring the absorption of radiation in substances, most often penetrating electromagnetic radiation X and gamma, in some cases also corpuscular radiation. Examination of an object located between the radiation source and the detector - the radiography , the detector measures the attenuationradiation or a change in its spectrum as it passes through the analyzed object - Fig.3.1.1a. These methods can be used to measure and monitor material thickness and density, liquid level, gas mixture composition, detect the presence of smoke, monitor humidity, etc. The most important methods of this kind are X-ray diagnostics in medicine and defectoscopy in industrial industry .

Fig.3.1.1. Geometric arrangement of the radiation source, the analyzed or irradiated object and the detector in various applications of ionizing radiation.
a) Transmission radiation measurements. b) Scattering and fluorescence measurements. c) Emission radiation measurement. d) Measurement of radioactive samples. e) Radiation irradiation of objects.

• b) Scattering and fluorescence measurements
  In these methods, the radiation source and the detector lie in the same "half-space" with respect to the measured sample - Fig.3.1.1b. We irradiate the analyzed object with the primary radiation source and use the detector to measure the secondary radiation generated in the sample by appropriate physical mechanisms - Compton scattering or the formation of characteristic X-rays due to the photoeffect. In addition to some less commonly used methods of scattering thickness or density measurement, this mainly includes X-ray fluorescence analysis and X-ray diffraction crystallography.
  Note:This method of measurement is sometimes referred to as " reflection ". However, this is misleading, as no laws of geometric optics (such as the law of reflection or refraction) apply to the interaction of ionizing radiation. Only scattering, absorption and re-emission (fluorescence) of radiation occur.
  
• c) Emission radiation measurements
  For emission radiation methods, we do not have an external emitter, because the source of radiation is the object under investigation, which is radioactive Fig.3.1.1c. Radioactivity is either introduced (applied) into the examined object in the form of a radioindicator (tracking methods, nuclear medicine - scintigraphy), or it is induced inside the object by irradiation with suitable radiation, which causes nuclear reactions in the sample nuclei. this is the case for activation analysis, especially neutron analysis).
  
• d) Measurement of radioactive samples
  taken from irradiated materials or substances with applied radioactivity - Fig.3.1.1d. This includes tracking methods in biology and medicine (nuclear medicine) or neutron activation analysis.
  Sample measurements are sometimes combined with other nuclear and radiation methods, as indicated by the arrows between Figures 3.1.1c, d, e. E.g. during dynamic scintigraphy of the kidneys (which is the emission method according to Fig.3.1.1c) blood samples are taken and measured to determine the glomerular filtration of the kidneys (see §3.4 " Dynamic scintigraphy of the kidneys"in the book" OSTNUCLINE - mathematical analysis and evaluation of scintigraphic studies ").

Intrascopy
Radiation measuring, analytical and detection methods belong to a wider field, sometimes called introscopy (Latin i ntro = inside , Greek scopeo = observation ; literally "looking inside") - non-destructive examination of the internal structure of objects and the processes taking place in them using physical methods : sound waves (including ultrasound), electromagnetic field and electromagnetic waves (light - eg classical endoscopy in medicine, radio waves, UV, X and g-radiation), fluxes of elementary particles (accelerated electrons, protons, neutrons, heavier ions). These methods are used mainly in medicine (from classical stethoscope, through optical endoscopy to ultrasound sonography, X-ray diagnostics and gammagraphy), but also in a number of scientific and technical and industrial applications (defectoscopy, activation analysis, X-ray fluorescence analysis and more). All of these methods, when using ionizing radiation or nuclear physics methods , will be described in more detail below.

2. Radiation irradiation and technological methods
Here, the energy transferred to the substance during irradiation is used here - Fig.3.1.1e, ionization of substances and subsequent physical, chemical and biological effects of ionizing radiation in the irradiated object. In the field of medical applications, this includes radiotherapy , industrial applications include some radiation-technological processes in chemistry (such as polymerization), sterilization of materials, production of radionuclides.

  The following paragraphs (§3.2-§3.7) will describe individual specific methods of ionizing radiation application, some briefly (industrial applications), others in detail (X-ray diagnostics, radiotherapy; in a special reference to a separate chapter 4 " Radionuclide scintigraphy " then methods of nuclear medicine) .

Collimation of ionizing radiation
In the vast majority of processes of ionizing radiation, this radiation is emitted almost isotropically in all directions *).
*) Exceptions are the interactions of high-energy particles , where due to the relativistic laws of conservation of momentum, the resulting particles and radiation are kinematically directed (collimated) in the direction of motion of primary high-energy particles.
  However, we often need to direct the radiation to a certain angle, or to concentrate it in a certain place; Radiation in other directions can be undesirable - disruptive or even harmful and dangerous. This direction, or collimation of radiation, can be performed in two basic ways :
¨ Electromagnetic collimation of charged particles
In the case of corpuscular radiation of charged particles, suitable direction - collimation - can be achieved by the action of electric and magnetic fields, which exert a force on the charged particles. This deflects the direction of movement of the particles (powder), which can be directed to the desired location.
¨ Mechanical absorption collimation of radiation
However, a simpler way, which works both for charged particles and for g and X radiation , is to use collimators.  A collimator is a mechanical and geometric arrangement of materials absorbing a given type of radiation that transmits only radiation from certain desired directions (angles), while it absorbs and does not transmit radiation from other directions *).
*) However, such absolutely sharp collimations cannot always be achieved in practice. For high-energy radiation penetrating grams occurring in peripheral edges of the collimator partial radiography , in which edge portions of the collimated beam produces a " penumbra ."
  Collimators are used in virtually all applications of ionizing radiation. Most of them are simple collimators in the shape of various tubes or orifices (as shown in a simplified way, for example, in Fig.3.1.1). Intricately configured collimators then play a key role especially in scintigraphy (imaging collimators with a large number of holes - §4.2 "Scintillation cameras", part "Collimators "), in X-ray diagnostics(§3.2" X-ray diagnostics ")and in radiotherapy (eg multi-lamellar MLC collimators - §3.6" Radiotherapy ", passage" Modulation of irradiation beams ").
Electronic radiation collimation
In some special detection and imaging systems, another method of directional radiation selection, so-called electronic collimation , is used without the use of a mechanical collimator.It is based on the specific behavior of quantum ionizing radiation in the detection system - propagation of pairs (or more) of quantums in certain precisely given directions ,their coincidence detection system of a larger number of detectors and subsequent positional and angular reconstruction of the direction of quantum propagation. This analysis makes it possible to select for further processing only those quantities of radiation that have the desired direction - to perform electronic collimation and display the distribution of radiation in a given field. The electronic collimation method is used in positron emission tomography PET (see §4.3 "Tomographic cameras, part" PET cameras ") and in some complex detection systems such as ring imaging Cherenkov RICH detectors (see ....), trackers and muon detection systems for accelerators (see §2.1, section " Arrangement and configuration of radiation detectors").

Radiation imaging - radiography
The very concept of imaging is based on the ability of our eyes to perceive light, its intensity, wavelength and spatial distribution, from which we create basic ideas about the shapes, size and placement of objects in space. If we want to get an objective idea of ??an object, its structure, changes and processes taking place in it, the most clear is to obtain the relevant data in pictorial form . This applies to an inanimate object, a living organism, the human body, or perhaps a distant galaxy in space. This imaging is performed by visualizing the physical fields with which the object under investigation interacts or transmits. That is, using different types of radiation
, which we irradiate the object, or which the object itself emits. The transmitted, reflected, scattered or emitted radiation is detected by suitable position-sensitive detectors , which display the spatial distribution of the radiation field (or its planar projections) and possibly also its other properties (especially the energy of quantum radiation) - see §2.1 " Methodology of ionizing radiation detection " .
  Radiography is the collective name for measuring quantity and displaying distribution radiation from studied objects that emit radiation either primarily or secondarily when they are irradiated from external radiation sources. This imaging is performed using photochemical manifestations in photographic emulsions, fluorescence of luminescence of screens and especially physical processes in electronic imaging detectors. This includes a number of methods from the fields of X-ray diagnostics, radiation defectoscopy, gammagraphy (scintigraphy) using radiopharmaceuticals.
  Imaging methods using different types of radiation are discussed below. About the X-ray image in the following §3.2 " X-rays - X-ray diagnostics " (including the appendix " X-ray telescopes ") . Autoradiography -photographic representation of the distribution of the beta-radioindicator in the examined preparations in close contact of the photographic emulsion with the sample is described in §2.2 " Photographic detection of ionizing radiation ", passage " Autoradiography ". Gamma-ray imaging is discussed in detail in Chapter 4 " Radionuclide Scintigraphy ", especially for applications in nuclear medicine (however, there are also brief methods for g- imaging from space - gamma-telescopes , " High-energy gamma cameras ") .
  In addition to the visual observing and evaluating the thus obtained image is often also important mathematical analysis of the images , either static (filtering, comparing data from different locations of images or between various images) or dynamic (evaluation and quantification of temporal changes in different parts of the image reflecting the dynamics of the respective processes in displayed object); these aspects are discussed in detail for the field of scintigraphy in §4.7 " Mathematical analysis and computer evaluation in nuclear medicine ".

3.2. X-radiation - X-ray diagnostics
The oldest, most widespread and still probably the most important application of ionizing radiation is X-ray diagnostics ( X-ray diagnostics , often also called radiodiagnostics , popularly called " rentgen "). From a physical point of view, we will here discuss the instrumentation and methods of X-ray diagnostics :

Discovery of X-rays
In the last decades of the 19th century. A number of researchers have studied high-voltage electric discharges in dilute gases. The so-called cathode rays were discovered , which were later found to be fast-moving electrons (see also §1.1, section " Structure of atoms"). W.C.Röntgen did similar experiments with cathode ray tube discharges in a laboratory in Württemberg in 1895. In the darkroom, he observed the fluorescence caused by cathode rays on luminescent screens. The illuminated tube glows, even when he inserted a thick book between the tube and the screen, and only when he placed a metal object between the tube and the screen did a shadow appear on the screen, and when he placed his hand between the cathode ray tube and the screen It was clear that unknown penetrating rays emitted from the cathode ray tube - " X- rays " (letter Xas a symbol for something unknown - an unknown variable in mathematics, an unknown person in a detective story) that can penetrate paper and fleshy tissue, but metal objects and bones are "opaque" to this radiation. Furthermore, Roentgen found that this radiation caused the photographic plate to blacken.
  Immediately after his discovery of penetrating radiation emanating from the cathode ray tube in 1895, Roentgen himself took the historically first X-ray image on a photographic plate, namely his wife's hand (Fig. 3.2.1 on the right, with a ring). Both Roentgen and other physicians have been aware from the beginning of the great importance of newly discovered radiation for medicine.. Roentgen thought that penetrating radiation originated in the diluted gas of the cathode ray tube. In other experiments, it was shown that the source of X-rays is not the discharge in the gas itself (it only supplied electrons); on the contrary, the removal (depletion) of gas and the use of a heated cathode will increase the efficiency of X-rays - vacuum X-rays have developed over the course of several decades (described in detail below).
Note: A brief reflection on the extent to which the discovery of X-rays was the result of chance or methodological procedure is given in §1.0 " Physics - fundamental natural science ", passage " Significant scientific discoveries - chance or method? ".

Fig.3.2.1. Left: Basic principal scheme of X-ray imaging. Middle: X-ray spectrum of the X-ray (filtered).
Right: The first X-ray taken by Roentgen himself (his wife's hands).

Origin and properties of the X-ray image
When using X-rays for imaging (especially in medicine), its basic properties of penetrating even materials opaque to light are used. The basic principal scheme of X-ray transmission imaging is in the left part of Fig.3.2.1. The penetrating electromagnetic X-rays with a photon energy of about 20 ¸ 150keV (wavelengths of about 5 to 50 picometers) , generated in the X-ray tube , pass through the examined object (organism tissue), while part of the radiation is absorbed depending on the thickness and density of the tissue . the remainder passes through the tissue and is imaged either photographically or on a luminescent screen, more recently using electronic detectors. In the body, X-rays are most absorbed by bones, less by soft tissues, least by body cavities and by air. When exposed to X-rays, an X- ray image of the examined tissue is created , which is a projection shadow image of density , showing differences in density tissues *). In other words, an X-ray image is created by projecting X-rays from the focus of the anode, through tissue structures within the organism with different absorption coefficients and different thicknesses, onto a film or imaging detector. Different absorptions of X-rays in different tissues are assigned different intensities in grayscale in the image; this assignment is realized either in an analog manner (film blackening) or digitally (electronic imaging detectors + computer, see below). This creates an image reflecting the size, shapes and arrangement of tissues and organs in the body, including any changes caused by pathological processes.
*) Differentiated absorption X-rays are the basis of the X-ray image. This absorption depends on the layer thickness, density and proton number of the irradiated substance. Soft tissues have a lower density and lower absorption of X-rays - more radiation is transmitted through these places, we get a clearer image or greater blackening of photographic material. The bones with calcium content are denser and absorb more X-rays - less passes through it, we get a less intense image or less blackening of the photographic film in these places. In Fig.3.2.1 on the right is an X-ray image on a photographic film.
   X-rays interact with tissue atoms mainly through two processes, discussed in more detail in §1.6, section " Interaction of gamma and X-rays ": photoeffect and Compton scattering (formation of electron-positron pairsdoes not occur here due to the low energy of photons used in X-ray diagnostics; an insignificant exception may be portal and tomo-therapeutic images on radiotherapy irradiators, see §3.6 " Radiotherapy ") . Both of these processes are involved in the different absorption of radiation in individual tissues (and also in the different absorption in normal and pathological districts within the same tissue), depending on the thickness, density of the substance and the proton number of the atoms. X-ray diagnostics is based on this different absorption of X-rays in different tissues, as well as their physiological or pathological conditions.
X-ray image quality
Three parameters are important for high-quality X-ray imaging and recognition of fine structures and anomalies :
¨ Sharpness and resolution imaging
for visual projection image is important in small size impinger foci from which the X-radiation is emitted (see below, " The design of the X-ray tube ") . For classical X-ray diagnostics, the focus is about 0.5 ¸ 2 mm, but for X-ray microscopy, an almost point focus with a diameter of the order of micrometers is required. Closely related to sharpness is the spatial resolution of the image *). Sharpness and resolution can also be affected by the properties of the imaging medium - photographic film, amplifying films, electronic imaging detectors. The resolution of the X-ray image is around 0.5-2 mm, depending on the size of the focus(X-ray microscopy can be a thousand times better!) .
*) Resolution is defined as the smallest distance between two "point" objects, at which they still appear as two separate structures; or equivalent to the half-width of the point object image profile. At shorter distances, both objects appear as one, they are not distinguished. As in photography, resolution is often measured in the maximum number of lines per millimeter [lp / mm] that can still be distinguished; in practice, the real resolution is around 2-5 lp / mm. The quality of X-ray imaging in terms of real resolution is sometimes quantified in detail using the so-called modulation transfer function MTF , indicating using Fourier harmonic analysis, what details of the examined object can be displayed with the given contrast. The issue of resolution, contrast and recognizability of lesions on X-ray images is largely similar to scintigraphic imaging - it is discussed in detail in §4.2, section " Scintigraphic image quality and detectability of lesions ".
   Significant deterioration in sharpness and resolution occurs especially when the image is blurred due to patient movement during exposure - motion blur . With modern devices, this risk is minimized by shortening the exposure time, while increasing the intensity of X-rays. Also, the movements of certain structures inside the body - heart beating or breathing movements - lead to image blur. This adverse effect can be eliminated by gating (trigration) and image synchronization in certain phases of cardiac pulsation or respiration - ECG-gating , respiratory-gating .
¨ The contrast of the image,
expressing the gradient of the display of differences in the absorption of X-rays using the gray scale, is given by two factors. First of all, it is the ratio of absorption coefficients for different types of displayed tissue. It depends mainly on the differences in the density of individual areas of tissue; where this difference is negligible or non-existent, we can sometimes increase it by applying contrast agents (see below). The contrast in absorption further depends on the energy of the X-rays. For thinner layers of soft tissue, soft X-rays (approx. 20keV) are more suitable, which interact mainly with a photoeffect with a steeper difference in absorption depending on density (the greatest contrast is achieved for X-rays close to the binding energy of electrons on K or L shells ) . Harder X-radiation (approx. 80 ¸ 100keV) is required to display thicker layers and denser materials (eg skeletal structure ). Contrast is negatively affected by Compton scattered radiation (see "secondary diaphragms" below).
   An important geometrical-anatomical factor, significantly worsening the contrast of the X-ray image and the overall recognizability of the lesions, is the irradiation and superposition of X-rays from individual layers of tissues and organs at different depths, generally with different densities. This adverse effect is largely eliminated in CT imaging .
   For digital devices, the contrast can be additionally increased by computer processing ( post-processing ) - a suitable brightness modulation of the image. In such processing, the so-called bit depth is important - the number of bits in which the image is created in the process of analog-digital conversion.(ADC) from an electronic X-ray detector to an image matrix in a computer. When displayed, the bit depth indicates the maximum number of shades of gray that we are able to display in the image - the larger this number of shades of gray, the more depicted we show particularly small differences in density and fine detail. A higher number of bits in the image allows you to emphasize the details in the image using suitable display windows for brightness modulation - stretching a certain small range of brightness values in the image to the full range.
  The relationship between the most commonly used bit depth and the maximum number of shades of gray is as follows (given by the power of 2 ^b ):
2 bits = 2 shades (white and black only); 4 bits = 16 shades; 8 bits = 256 shades; 12 bits = 4096 shades; 14 bits = 16384 shades; 16 bits = 65536 shades; 24 bits = 16777216 shades.
Although a large number of shades (tens and hundreds of thousands) are no longer directly distinguishable by the eye, this allows the use of narrow display windows to emphasize density gradients.
¨ Number of photons in the image - statistical noise
To obtain a quality well-exposed image, a certain optimal number of X-ray photons is needed . In films and luminescent screens, this number of photons is mainly determined by sensitivity the material used so that the image is not underexposed or overexposed. With digital imaging detectors, we can additionally adjust the brightness of the image, but the image quality is still determined by the following factor: X-ray emission, its interaction and imaging detection is subject to stochastic quantum laws , leading to quantum statistical fluctuations in photon flux. With insufficient X-ray photons, the image is "noisy," composed of disturbing artificial brighter and darker spots and clusters of dots where fine structures and details can disappear. If we have the registered number of N photons of X-rays in a given element (pixel) of the image , then the local statistical fluctuations - scattering, relative error - are SD = 1/ÖN. To obtain a well-drawn image with statistical fluctuations of less than 3%, more than 1000 photons must be recorded in each element of the image, for 1% of the fluctuation there must be more than 10,000 pulses / element. For digital imaging detectors - flat panels (described below) - the quality of the X-ray image in terms of noise depends on the sensitivity of the sensor: this is given by the detection quantum efficiency DQE ( Detection Quantum Efficiency ), which is the percentage of photons X-rays incident on the detector. is actually recorded by the detector and used to create the image (the rest is uselessly absorbed by the input window or detector material without scintillation or electrical response). For digital X-ray images, especially CT, the statistical noise of the image is expressed in Hounsfield units HU (introduced below in the section " X-ray tomography -CT ", passage " Origin of the density image ") ; in a good picture, the SD noise should not exceed about 20-30 HU. The total number of photons for the exposure of a given image is set by the product of the X-ray current and the exposure time (see below " X-raytube ", section " Braking X-rays ") - " milliampere-seconds " [mAs]; it can also be electronically controlled using automatic exposure - see below " Setting X-ray parameters "," .
¨ Artifacts on an X-ray image
Under certain circumstances, some structures that do not originate in the displayed object may appear on X-ray images - they are false artifacts . flat-panel, unwanted objects (eg metal) in the X-ray beam.In CT imaging, so-called structural artifacts may arise, arising during the reconstruction of transverse sections in places with sharp differences in density, especially at the transition of bone and soft tissue.

X-ray tube
Source of X-rays for X-imaging is a special vacuum tube called X-ray tube , X-ray tube or tubes (Eng. X-ray tube ). From an electronic point of view, the X-ray machine is simply a classic diode connected in a circuit with a high voltage of approx. 20-200 kV. The heated cathode emits electrons which are attracted to the anode *) with a high positive voltage, while they are accelerated by a strong electric field to the kinetic energy E = Ue, given by the high voltage U between the cathode and the anode (ie E = approx. 20 ¸ 200keV). Just before the impact on the anode, it obtains an electron with charge e and mass m_{e a} very high velocity v = Ö (2.eU/m _e ) (for voltage U = 60kV, the electrons will have a kinetic energy of 60keV and an impact velocity of approximately 150000km / s, which is half the speed of light) . Upon impact with the anode, the electrons brake rapidly , converting some of their kinetic energy to hard electromagnetic radiation - X-rays of two types: bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation (the origin and properties of these two types of radiation are discussed below) . This X-ray leaves the anode and flies out of the tube (Fig.3.2.1 left).
*) The anode, the electrode located opposite the cathode, was formerly also calledanticathode , especially in cathode ray tubes. Anode  it is made of a heavy material (most often tungsten), which has a high electron density, so the incident electrons are sharply braked by a large repulsive force, which, according to the laws of electrodynamics, changes part of their kinetic energy into braking electromagnetic radiation - X-ray photons. However, the efficiency of this process is relatively small - only about 1% of the total kinetic energy of electrons is transformed into X-ray photons, the rest is converted into heat. The reason is that only about 1% of electrons penetrate deep enough inside the atoms of the anode material, up to the L or K shell, where large Coulomb electric forces act only causing a sharp change in the speed of the electrons and thus effective excitation of hard bremsstrahlung. The other electrons transfer their kinetic energy to the electrons and atoms of the crystal lattice, which results in heat. Note: The X-ray can be considered the simplest particle accelerator (§1.5 "Elementary particles", part " Charged particle accelerators ") - it is a linear electrostatic accelerator of electrons, the source of which is a hot cathode, the (inner) target is the anode. + characteristic) X-rays.
Braking X-rays
Braking radiation is a consequence of the laws of Maxwell's electrodynamics, according to which every uneven ("accelerated") movement of an electric charge emits electromagnetic waves - see §1.5 " Electromagnetic field. Maxwell's equations. ", Larmor's formula (1.61 '), monograph " Gravity, black holes and space-time physics " . Therefore, even when the braking of the electron after the impact on the anode, the more intense and harder the electromagnetic radiation, the sharper the braking (the greater the deceleration and in the mentioned formula) - see also §1.6, passage " Braking radiation " .
  The effective cross section for the production of bremsstrahlung is generally given by the highly complicated Bethe-Heitler formula (derived from quantum radiation theory, corrected by the Sauter and Elwert factors of the Coulomb shielding of the electron shell) . For a not very wide range of kinetic energies E _{e of} incident electromains (tens to hundreds of keV) and proton numbers Z target material (medium to heavy materials), the overall efficiency of brake radiation production h can be approximated by a simplified formula :
                           h = E _e [kev] . Z . 10 ^-6   [photons / electron].
By converting the number of electrons n _e to the current I = n _e .q _e / ta by substituting the value of the charge of the electron q _e = 1,6.10 ^-19 C (= 1,6.10 ^-16 mAs) from this relation the resulting flux of photons I _X [number of photons / s.] braking radiation depending on X-ray current I [mA]and anode voltage U [kV] :
                           I _X = U. I. (Z / 1.6). 10 ¹⁰   [photons / s],
which will be used below in the section " Setting X-ray parameters ". Only a relatively small part (only about 1%) of the original kinetic energy of the incident particle changes to braking radiation when braked in the fabric. Most of the energy, with multiple Coulomb scattering, is eventually transferred to the kinetic energy of the atoms of the anode substance - it is converted into heat .
  Total energy spectrum of X-rays (braking + characteristic), emitted from the anode of the X-ray tube, is drawn below in Fig. 3.2.5 at the top right. The graphic form of the energy spectrum I (E) of continuous braking X-rays is approximately approximated by the so-called Kramers formula :
                           I (E) = K. I. Z . (E _max - E),
where I (E) is the relative intensity of energy photons E , K is a constant, Z is the proton (atomic) number of the anode material, E _max is the maximum energy of X-ray photons, given by the kinetic energy of incident electrons. It is clear that I (E _max ) = 0 and the formula is valid only for E <E _max .
  It is logical that the efficiency of brake radiation production is higher for high Z - large electric Coulomb forces act around such nuclei, causing abrupt changes in the velocity vector of the incident electrons that get close to the nucleus. The efficiency of bremsstrahlung [number of photons / electron] increases with energy E _eincident electrons. Low-energy electrons are usually scattered on the outer shells of the atoms of the anode material and emit soft radiation, which often does not even reach the X-ray energy range. The higher the energy of the incident electrons, the more likely they are to penetrate deeper into the anode atoms, close to the nucleus, where the greatest electrical forces act, significantly changing the electron velocity vector, leading to higher energy and efficiency of brake X-ray production. However, the overall energy efficiency - the ratio of the total energy of the emitted photons to the energy of the incident electrons - is lower for higher energies (due to the higher percentage of low-energy photons). And the heat losses in the target (anode) are higher.
   The stopping X-rays produced by the X-ray tube have a continuous spectrum from energies close to zero to the maximum energy given almost by the value of the anode voltage - Fig.3.2.1 in the middle (here is the spectrum after partial filtering of the softest component - see below) . The energy of the braking radiation depends on the speed (acceleration) at which the electrons are braked on impact with the anode surface. The individual electrons penetrate at different depths into the atoms of the anode material, thus emitting different wavelengths or energies of photons. Those electrons, which "softly" brake with repeated multiple scattering on the outer electron shells of the anode atoms, emit a series of photons of braking (and characteristic) low-energy radiation; some of them fall into the area of ??soft X-rays, others into the area of ??UV and visible light(The resulting low-energy photons are often absorbed in the anode material and do not fly out) . The deeper the electrons penetrate into the interior of the anode atoms, the closer to the nucleus, the faster the intense Coulomb forces change their velocity vector and the harder the braking X-rays are produced. The shortest wavelengths arise for electrons that have penetrated to the level of the K shell and closer to the nucleus, where they can be braked almost once. Depending on the impact factor of individual electrons relative to the anode atoms, which is random , all possibilities are continuously realized - such a different degree of electron braking causes a mixture of radiation of different wavelengths or photon energies - the result is a continuous spectrumbraking radiation. Low-energy X-ray photons are the most represented in this continuous spectrum, only a very small percentage at the end of the spectrum corresponds to high energies, close to the energy of incident electrons, given the high voltage between the cathode and the anode of the X-ray (see Fig. 3.2.5 below) ) .
The wavelength and energy of X-rays
The nature of X-radiation of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength of about 10 ^-9 ¸ 10 ^-11 m but which radiates as quanta - photons - the energy of about 5keV ¸ 200keV ( " The particle-wave duality ") . Earlier (until the 1960s) it was customary to characterize X-rays with a wavelength of l and in the older literature was given the so-called Duan-Hunt relation l_min [nm] = hc / eU @ 1.234 / U [kV] between the voltage U [in kilovolts] at X-ray and the minimum wavelength l _min [in nanometers] of the resulting braking X-rays *). A Kramer's formula for the spectrum was given in the form I ( l ) = KZI [( l / l _min ) - 1] / l ² (in this form it was compiled by HAKramers in 1923; at that time X-rays were described only by wavelength) .
   This method was considerably disadvantageous and misleading, especially in relation to the mechanism of this radiation, where the values ??of the accelerating voltage in [kV] occur. Now abandoned long ago , the X-ray spectrum is expressed mainly by the photon energy E _X [keV], which in X-rays is derived directly from the voltage U (maximum energy E _Xmax @ U, mean energy <E _X > » U / 3] and The Duan-Hunt relation has lost its importance.
*) It is actually a differently written relation E _X = h / l between the energy of the photon E _X in [keV] and the wavelength l in [nm] for the situation when all the kinetic energy E = Ue of the electron of charge e , accelerated by the voltage U , is converted into a photon X-rays (corresponds to the energy E _Xmax and the wavelength l _min ).
Characteristic X-rays
In addition to braking X-rays with a continuous spectrum, a certain smaller amount of characteristic X-rays with a line spectrum (characteristic pair of peaks K a , K b ) is emitted , the energy of which does not depend on the anode voltage but is given by the anode material; for the most commonly used tungsten, these are the 59.3 + 67.2keV peaks (and also the L peak around 10keV), which appear as "bumps" on the continuous curve of the spectrum (Fig. 3.2.1 in the middle).
   The characteristic X-rays are caused by two processes :
¨ Direct process of the impact photoeffect at the internal energy levels of the electron shell in the atoms of the anode material - fast electrons penetrate into the atoms and eject bound electrons from the K and L shells. shell K (K-series), or from the shell M to L (L-series) the difference of energies is then radiated in the form of photons of electromagnetic radiation - characteristic X-radiation (cf. also with Fig.1.1.3 in §1.1).
¨ Indirect process of photoelectric absorption of braking radiation- braking X-rays, generated by the above-mentioned mechanism during the braking of accelerated electrons, interact with other atoms inside the anode substance, among others by a photon photoeffect (described in §1.6, part " Interaction of gamma and X-rays ", Fig.1.6.3 left) , emitting electrons from the inner shells, followed by an electron jump and the emission of characteristic X-rays, similar to the previous case.
   The impact electron photoeffect and the emission of photons also occur when electrons jump in the outer shells, but the energy of these photons is low and this radiation is covered by continuous bremsstrahlung at the beginning of the spectrum.
   A certain minimum (threshold) anode voltage is required for the formation of characteristic X-rays, higher than the binding energy of electrons on the K-shell of atoms of the anode material (for tungsten it is about 70keV, for molybdenum 20keV) . If the anode voltage is lower, only continuous bremsstrahlung is generated in the X-ray, and when the threshold voltage is exceeded, the spectrum contains both brakes and peaks of characteristic X-rays.
  The proportion of characteristic X-rays in the total spectrum of the X-ray tube depends on the anode material and the anode voltage. For a tungsten anode, it is approximately 30% at a voltage of 100 kV and only about 3% at a voltage of 200 kV.

X-ray tube design
Unlike conventional tubes used in low-current electronics, X-rays tubes have a relatively robust design (they resemble screens or transmitter tubes in size), given two circumstances. On the one hand, it is a very high voltage, reaching hundreds of kilovolts. The second circumstance is thermal heating : electrons incident at high speed on the anode convert only a small part of their energy into X-rays, the vast majority of their kinetic energy is converted into heat - the anode of the X-ray tube is heated strongly . To dissipate this heat, the anode must have a relatively massive construction; in addition, anode rotation or cooling is used (described below). One of the technical parameters is maximum power of the X-ray machine [kW] - peak electrical power input of the X-ray machine, which the X-ray machine can still "withstand" without overheating and thermally damaging.
  The most commonly used material for the anode of an X-ray machine is tungsten (tungsten), a heavy and heat-resistant metal. To improve the thermal properties of the anode, especially the heat capacity, rhenium-alloyed tungsten (10%) is often used, or the anode is composed of several layers - alloyed tungsten, molybdenum, graphite. For X-ray tubes for X-rays around 20keV for mammography, the anode is made of molybdenum.
  X-rays tubes can be divided into two main groups, which govern their design (+ the third group of special constructions listed below) :
¨ X-rays tubes for industrial irradiation and radiotherapeutic use ,
which do not require focusing of electrons to an almost point focus and which have a fixed (non-rotating) anode. High energy and X-ray intensity are common requirements here; the anode is actively cooled by the flow of cooling medium through its interior.
¨ X-rays tubes for X-ray diagnostics
with focusing of the electron beam into the focus and mostly with a rotating anode (to prevent local overheating of the focus). Below we will deal mainly with these X-rays tubes for radiodiagnostics. The anode target material is mostly tungsten, for low X-ray energies (around 20-40keV) molybdenum is used as the anode target material; the X - ray machine is additionally equipped with a beryllium exit window - see below " X - ray mammography".
¨ Special types of X-ray tubes  
 In addition to the cathode and anode, in some types of X-rays we can meet a third electrode - a wire grid , located between the cathode and the anode, in close proximity to the cathode. electrons (ie. the anode current) and thus the intensity of X-rays. by applying higher negative voltage on the grid can be quickly interrupted anode current and the emission of X-rays (used sometimes for a quick X-ray film). Mikroohniskové ray tube (microfocus X-ray Tube) have an extremely small impact focus of electrons on the anode, of the order of mm. This is achieved by placing a special set of electrodes (electron optics - "objective") between the hot cathode and the anode, focusing electrons from the cathode into a very narrow beam incident almost point on the target-anode. They provide very high sharpness and resolution of the image, but only limited power (intensity, fluctuation) of X-rays. They are used for X-ray microscopy and CT defectoscopy (see below §3.3, section " Radiation defectoscopy ").
  For special purposes (especially spectrometric and micro -X-rays) X- rays tubes with a frontal transmission anode ( Target Transmission X-ray Tube ) are constructed.), where the beam of accelerated electrons impinges on the thin front-located anode, the resulting X-rays passing through the material of the thin anode to the outside of the tube where it is used. It can also be designed as the above-mentioned microfocus .
  In addition to the usual tightly closed (sealed) evacuated X-ray tubes, so-called open X-ray lamps are sometimes constructed . They have a metal casing that the user can open, replace the cathode filament and anode material (tungsten, copper, molybdenum, etc.) as needed, and close the tube again and evacuate.

Fig.3.2.2. Special microfocus X-ray tube with transmission anode for X-ray microscopy

Historical development of X-ray tubes
X-ray tubes originally evolved from discharge lamps , which are gas-filled glass tubes with electrodes to which a voltage of the order of hundreds of volts is applied. The next stage was Crookes cathode ray tubes - discharge lamps with very dilute gas, on the electrodes of which a high voltage of the unit of up to tens of kilovolts is applied. The classic radiant discharge practically no longer occurs here, but the ionization of the atoms of the diluted gas releases electrons , accelerated by a high voltage towards the anode - cathode radiation . In addition to the fluorescence of the flask or inserted objects, there is also a secondary penetrating photon radiation - X-rays (discovered by X-rays and independently by other researchers), braking and characteristic. Cathode ray tubes also played an important role in atomic physics, with their help J.J. Thomson discovered electrons, which allowed them to penetrate the structure of atoms.
  The first " cold cathode " X-rays were actually Crookes cathode ray tubes with specially modified electrodes. An important milestone was the creation of a vacuum X-ray tube with a hot cathode , designed by WDCoolidge in 1913 (shown in Fig. 3.2.1 on the left). Later, with increasing performance, the anode rotation as well as other technical improvements and special designs were added to X-ray imaging diagnostics (see below). Experiments with X-ray laser sources are currently being performed- whether the excitation of characteristic X-rays in a high-temperature plasma generated by a laser beam or braking X-rays on the impact of accelerated electrons on a target. On the sidelines, we can note that the most complicated special "X-rays" (sources of X-rays) can be considered wigglers and undulators of electron synchrotrons (see §1.5, section " Charged particle accelerators ").

Electron focusing, focus
In order to achieve good sharpness and resolution of the projection shadow transmission image in X-ray diagnostics, it is necessary that the X-ray beam comes from an almost point source . In X-ray machines for X-ray diagnostics, the filament - a tungsten spiral - is embedded in a recess or focusing slit of the cathode , which has a negative polarity, so that its repellent effect clusters electrons into a narrow strip *). After acceleration by high voltage, the electrons then fall into a relatively sharply localized place of the anode - the impact focus , which has a rectangular shape due to the elongated shape of the filament. Real, optical focus the resulting X-ray is a geometric projection of the radiating surface on the anode, i.e. the impact focus, into a plane perpendicular to the beam of radiation used for imaging. The originally rectangular impact focus is reduced in the longitudinal direction due to the inclined, tilted surface of the anode; its projection in the direction of the display has an almost square shape, usually 0.5-2 mm in size.
*) These X-rays tubes usually have two cathode fibers - shorter and longer. By switching the heating current, one or the other fiber can be heated and thus the size of the impact focus on the anode can be changed.
  Some new X-rays tubes, instead of the classic incandescent fiber, have an incandescent cathode solved by the so-called flat emitter technology (ftat emitter). It consists of a rectangle of hot thin sheet metal, masked by several holes. By adjusting the negative voltage between the cathode gap and the emitter, a very sharply localized impact focus can be achieved more precisely.
Asymmetry of the X-ray beam from the focus, heel effect
In the first approximation, the X-ray is emitted from the impact focus isotropically , with the same intensity in all directions. However, some of the incident electrons penetrate below the surface of the anode and the X-rays generated there are partially absorbed and attenuated as they pass through the anode material. This leads to a change in the shape of the radiation pattern from the target at the anode, to a certain angular asymmetry 
X-ray beam emanating from the chamfered anode: for an angle of about 30 ° in the direction of the cathode, the radiation intensity is about 5% higher than in the center (0 °), in the opposite direction (to the anode disk) about 15% lower. This shaping of the radiation characteristics are sometimes referred to as anode heel effect, some "heel effect", "skew". This phenomenon may manifest itself in some minor inhomogeneity of the X - ray image, especially during exposures of large imaging fields, or during X-ray mammography. This inhomogeneity is smooth and gradual, so it does not interfere with visual evaluation; however, digital evaluation is sometimes computer-corrected.
Anode cooling and rotation
Local overheating of a single anode site ( focus), where the electrons fall, is often prevented by rotating the anode *) : the cathode is eccentrically placed in the X-ray tube, the anode in the shape of a conical disk (about 5-10 cm in diameter) rotates around the longitudinal axis, so that the electron beam always falls to a different place the circumference of the anode, making the heating and heat dissipation more uniform (Fig.3.2.2 left). Although X-rays emanate from the same place - the focus, which is against the stationary cathode, this place is due to the rotation of the anode constantly formed by another physical part of the anode disk; the heat is thus better dissipated in the anode material. X-rays tubes for very high performances (eg in industrial use) then have an anode actively cooled - inside the anode there is a cavity through which the cooling liquid flows.
*) Anode rotation
Because the anode is located inside a high vacuum tube, its rotation cannot be ensured by a mechanical transmission from the outside. No bearing is so tight that no air enters the tube over time - the vacuum would be broken. Rotation of the anode is driven electromagnetically : within the anode neck x-ray tube is on bearings fixed to the metal roller shaft connection with the anode which serves as a rotor , outside the X-ray tubes are disposed coils supplied with alternating current - those forming the stator , giving the rotating magnetic field which, by electromagnetic induction ( eddy currents are induced in the rotor) rotates by a roller and an anode inside the tube (Fig.3.2.2 left). From an electromechanical point of view, such an X-ray tube is actually a small asynchronous electric motor. The rotation speed of the anode is usually 50 rpm (3000 rpm), 10-12,000 rpm is also used for high power X-rays. A certain problem is the wear of the bearings on which the anode rotor is anchored. These bearings are highly mechanically and thermally stressed, they are outside the evacuation area outside the possibility of maintenance and lubrication (only "dry" lubrication with silver or lead metal powder is used) - their wear is usually the main limiting factor of X-ray tube life.
  In modern X-ray machines , hydrodynamic lubrication of bearings with a thin layer of suitable molten metal is sometimes used (a kind of "aqua-planing" of the shaft in liquid metal, with minimal friction). One suitable metal is gallium, which has a low melting point of about 130 ° C and a sufficiently high boiling point of 2204 ° C, so that even at relatively high temperatures of several hundred ° C, the vacuum does not contaminate its vapor. Furthermore, such a lubricating contact surface in the bearing efficiently dissipates heat from the anode. Before the actual operation, after switching on the device, the bearing is first heated and only after the melting of the lubricating metal does the rotation of the anode begin, which is then maintained continuously even outside the exposure, until the device is switched off. The bearing is heated and the required temperature is maintained by the effect of eddy currents induced in the rotor (these are the same eddy currents which, by their interaction with the rotating magnetic field of the stator, drive the rotation of the anode). Special so-called eutectic alloys are also used to lubricate the anode bearing metals which are liquid even at normal temperatures (eg gallium, indium and tin in an alloy of suitable ratio, with a melting point of -10 ° C).
  From a mechanical point of view, the rapidly rotating massive anode behaves like a flywheel , preserving its vector of rotational momentum. If we try to tilt the X-ray machine with a rotating anode (change the direction of its axis), due to the gyroscopic effect , the rotating anode puts up resistance and its bearings are stressed by considerable forces. This is especially the case with CT tomography devices, where the X-ray machine orbits around the examined object relatively quickly. Therefore, X-rays with double-sided anchoring of the anode axis are sometimes used here. The shaft of the rotating anode, passing through the whole X-ray tube, is mounted in bearings at both ends. The cathode portion of the X-ray tube then has two protrusions: one on the side for mounting and feeding the eccentrically located cathode, the other in the middle for mounting the second anode bearing. When the rotary anode shaft is anchored on both sides, the gyroscopic forces are distributed and the bearings are significantly less stressed.

Fig.3.2.3. Design of X-ray tubes used in radiodiagnostics.
Left: Classic X-ray lamp with rotating anode. Right: STRATON type X-ray tube, rotating as a whole, with the front anode in direct contact with the oil cooling bath and with the magnetic deflection of the electrons from the cathode.

   Although the rotation of the anode prevents local overheating of the impact focus on the anode, during longer operation the anode heats up strongly as a whole and this heat is only slowly transferred by infrared radiation through a vacuum out of the X-ray lamp to the cooling medium. It is therefore necessary to observe certain time delays between individual exposures in order for the anode to cool down. Another disadvantage of the rotating anode is the wear of the bearing inside the vacuum flask, which cannot be lubricated or otherwise maintained from the outside. In addition, when the bearing wears, unwanted fumes are released into the vacuum space of the X-ray tube.
Rotating X-ray machine as a whole
A new Straton X-ray tube design has therefore been developed for higher performance, where the beam of accelerated electrons from the axially positioned cathode, deflected by the magnetic field of the deflection coils (located outside the tube) *) impinges peripherally on the opposite front anode, which is in direct contact with the cooling oil bath from which the X-ray tube is immersed - Fig.3.2.2 on the right. The X-ray tube rotates as a whole around its longitudinal axis connecting the cathode to the center of the anode, the X-rays emanating in the lateral direction (similar to a conventional Coolidge-type tube). The glow and anode voltage is applied to the X-ray tube by means of collecting rings, on which electric brushes slide ( slip-ring technology , similar to that of electric motors for direct current). The main advantage of this design is the substantially better cooling of the anode , which is in direct contact with the cooling medium, while there are no mechanically moving parts inside the vacuum space. The bearings on which the entire X-ray tube is mounted are easily accessible and can be effectively lubricated. This leads to the possibility of achieving higher performance and significantly extending the life of the X-ray tube .
*) The current through the deflection coils must be precisely set depending on the accelerating anode voltage: the higher the voltage [kV] at X-ray is set, the higher the current must flow through the deflection coils so that the electron beam is properly bent and hits the desired location at the anode edge. The desired current can be set by electronic current control in the deflection coilsthe position of the impact focus of the electrons on the anode. By controlling the deflection current, it is possible to define several foci that can operate simultaneously in multiplex operation.
   Furthermore, the Straton X-ray machine is significantly smaller and lighter at the same power than conventional X-ray machines with a rotating anode. This is very advantageous in new technologies of high - speed multi-slice CT devices, where the rotational mechanics are strongly stressed by centrifugal, gravitational and gyroscopic forces.

Power supply of the X-ray machine
The X-ray tube, as an electronic source of radiation, requires an appropriate power supply , supplying electrical energy generating X-rays and providing other functions necessary for the correct operation of the device. The X-ray machine has three basic power supplies:
¨ The heating current source
for the X-ray tube cathode. It is a glow transformer , they supply a low voltage of usually 6-12V and a current in the range of approx. 0.5-10A on their secondary winding, with the possibility of continuous regulation (see below "Setting the X-radiation parameters").

Fig.3.2.4. X-ray Power Supply
Above: High anode voltage source. Middle: AC voltage for anode rotation. Bottom: Cathode glow voltage.
Note: I present this arrangement of an X-ray under high voltage, with a hot cathode, a rotating anode and X-ray emission on a "work table" as an experimental demonstration.

¨ High voltage source
- anode voltage for accelerating electrons in X-ray. This is a voltage in the range of mostly about 20kV-150kV; it can also be lower for special X-ray machines for spectrometric use, and up to 400 kV in industrial applications. The basis of this source (also called a generator ) is a high-voltage transformer , which transforms the mains voltage (220V / 380V) upwards - either directly from the mains voltage to the required value, or more recently via an electronic oscillating circuit. The high-voltage transformer has a high gear ratio (given by the ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary windings) of the order of 1000 or more.
  Newer devices use high-frequency sources high voltage. The mains voltage is first rectified and smoothed. This DC voltage is supplied to the high-frequency oscillator (inverter), which uses thyristors to generate an AC voltage of about 10kHz with sharp edges. This is then converted into a high AC voltage in the high-voltage transformer, which is further rectified and smoothed (see below). The advantage of this solution is that the high-frequency transformer can have significantly smaller dimensions and weight at the same power than a conventional transformer with a frequency of 50Hz.
  The value of the anode voltage can be regulated either continuously or stepwise in suitable steps. This is achieved using an autotransformer which is preceded by a high voltage transformer. The autotransformer regulates the mains voltage in the range of approx. 20-220V, which is then multiplied by the high-voltage unit by a constant ratio (approx. 1: 1000). In the case of electronic high-frequency sources, the high-voltage regulation is carried out by means of frequency control .
  The AC high voltage is rectified *) by vacuum or semiconductor diodes. The simplest rectification is one-way (" single- pulse") by means of one diode connected in series (or without rectification, rectified by X-ray - note below) , when the emission of radiation occurs only in the positive half-period of alternating current. Two-way rectification is more perfect ("two-pulse") using 4 diodes in a bridge Graetz connection, or 2 diodes in a double secondary winding, where there is always a positive (pulsating) voltage at the anode and the X-ray machine operates in both half-periods of AC voltage. Sometimes a three-phase mains supply of a three-phase high-voltage transformer is used and 6 diodes in a bridge connection are used for rectification - only a slightly pulsating DC voltage is generated (which never drops to zero, but only by about 15% of the peak voltage), the pulsations have a frequency of 300Hz; it is sometimes referred to as six-pulse smoothing. A three-phase high-voltage transformer can have two triple secondary coils, phase-shifted by 60 °; after rectification by means of 12 diodes in a bridge circuit, only a slightly pulsating DC voltage is obtained (with a frequency of 600Hz it fluctuates only by about 4% - "12-pulse smoothing "), close to the right smoothed DC voltage. In the case of high-frequency high-voltage sources, smoothing by means of capacitors can be carried out very well after rectification , so that a minimally pulsating DC voltage with a high frequency of small pulses is obtained.
*) In fact, the X-ray machine itself is basically a diode that can take care of the rectification itself. For older and simpler devices, therefore, the X-ray machine was supplied with alternating voltage, while the emission of X-rays occurs only in half-periods when there is a positive voltage at the anode. The disadvantage of this solution is the increased proportion of the soft component of radiation (arising at the beginning and end of the half-period, when the instantaneous voltage is significantly lower) and at higher powers also the possibility of reverse current (" backfire ") - in the final half-period the secondary electrons emitted from heated foci of anode, towards the cathode, which are bombarded by high kinetic energy and can damage it.
   The value of high X-ray voltage is expressed in thousands of volts - kilovolts [kV] . If a pulsating voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode of the X-ray tube , the maximum energy of the emitted X-rays is given by the maximum positive value of the anode voltage, which is expressed as [kVp] - "number of kilovolts in the peak".
¨ Power supply for anode rotation ,
which is an alternating voltage (usually 220 / 380V mains), applied to the stator coils , creating a rotating magnetic field for X-ray anode rotation. At a mains voltage frequency of 50Hz, the fundamental frequency of rotation of the anode is 3000rpm; by segmenting the stator coils, lower speeds of 1500, 1000, 750, 600 rpm can be achieved. To achieve higher speeds, the X-ray stator must be powered by an electronic oscillator , providing a frequency higher than 50Hz. A higher starting voltage is first applied to the stator, which is reduced to about 1/3 after spinning to maintain synchronous speed. The speed of the anode (rotor) can be electronically monitored on the basis of the current flowing at a given voltage through the stator coils when the rotating magnetic field is excited (after reaching the synchronous speed this current decreases significantly). Only after the anode has been rotated to the required speed can the high anode voltage start and the exposure begin. In order to prevent the X-ray anode from rotating unnecessarily for a long time, the opposite phase of alternating voltage is connected to the respective stator coils for a while after the exposure, whereby the rotating magnetic field reverses its direction and the rotation of the anode is electromagnetically braked.(For some types, a separate winding is installed in the stator for braking, a DC supply for magnetic braking of the rotor is also used). Exceptions are anodes with molten metal (gallium) lubricated bearings, which rotate continuously, even between exposures, as described above.
  Newer X-ray devices also use other voltages to supply electric motors for sliding and rotating movements, X-ray cooling, as well as control and regulation electronics, including detection and evaluation circuits.
X-ray tube cover
During actual operation in X-ray machines, the X-ray tube is encapsulated in a special metal cover (made of aluminum alloys) of cylindrical shape *). The cover is shielded from the inside lead sheet approx. 3 mm before unwanted penetration of X-rays into the surroundings. At the ends of the housing there are bushings through which voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode by means of well-insulated high-voltage cables , and a low glow voltage is then applied at the cathode end. In the middle part *) of the cover there is an exit window (of course unshielded, to which the X-ray machine must be turned with its impact focus) made of a light material, mostly acrylic glass, through which the X-ray beam comes out for the respective use. In power X-rays tubes, the space between the X-ray lamp and the walls of the package is filled with a cooling medium - transformer oil . The oil environment also increases the electrical strengthcircuits - prevents high voltage electric shocks. To eliminate the mechanical stress on the cover due to the thermal expansion of the cooling oil, a rubber expansion membrane is built in a suitable place on the wall of the X-ray cover (prevents, for example, the cover from bursting when the X-ray tube overheats) .
*) For Straton X-rays, the housing has a double cone shape and the exit window is near the end where the anode is. The appropriate location of the impact focus on the anode opposite the output window in the housing is ensured by deflection coils (incl. The angle of their rotation), located from the outside in the narrowed part of the housing - Fig.3.2.2 on the right.
  Smaller, low-power X-ray machines sometimes use a compact design: a high-voltage transformer (for the anode) with a winding current winding for the cathode is built into the common housing together with the X-ray tube. Only such a 220V mains supply is then supplied to such a compact system.
Collimation and localization system
The following is a collimation system , consisting of a tubus with adjustable orifices defining the geometric shape of the X-ray beam. The apertures are adjusted so that the X-ray beam covers only the displayed area and other parts of the body are not unnecessarily irradiated. A light localization system is installed in the X-ray tube collimation system for visual focus and adjustment of the displayed field - the light from the filament lamp is guided by optical projection through the collimation system so as to achieve a match between the visible light field and the X-ray field. Before the examination, it is possible to adjust the position of the displayed field on the film cassette or display panel, as well as on the surface of the patient's body.
Mechanical design of X-ray devices
The cover with X-ray tube and collimation system, together with the opposite film cassette or imaging panel, are mounted on special stands of several types and constructions, according to the required X-ray imaging methodology - Fig.3.2.5. For skiagraphic imaging , the X-ray is most often mounted on top of a vertical stand (column tripod mounted on the floor or ceiling mount) with the possibility of easy mechanical movement. The film cassette or display panel is mounted at the bottom of the stand, again with the possibility of sliding. Between them is a sliding bed with the patient for examination while lying down. For standing (or sitting) imaging, the X-ray machine with the collimation system is rotated horizontally, the opposite cassette or flat-panel is on a separate vertical stand (so-called vertigraph ). The horizontal movement (travel) of the X-ray machine can be realized by means of rails mounted on the ceiling or floor of the examination room. Displacements of individual parts of the X-ray system can be manual or motorized , using electronically controlled electric motors. For new systems, the so-called autotracking - automatic synchronous coupling of display panel and X-ray displacements (equipped with a collimation system). Some systems for both sciagraphy and sciascopy have the option of rotating or tilting the X-ray stand, display panel, or tilt to various angles , from horizontal to vertical - such a system is called an X - ray tilting wall and has a wide range of uses.
  For flexible sciascopic imaging , the X-ray tube and the opposite imaging detection system are often mounted on a special stand in the shape of the letter "C" - the so-called C-arm ( C-arm ) - Fig.3.2.3b., Or the so-called U-arm - Fig.3.2 .3c. These arms can be rotated using electric motors to different angles around the patient, allowing flexible display in different projections. These systems (which are sometimes mobile) are used in a wide range of applications, such as digital subtraction angiography (see below DSA - Fig.3.2.3), X-ray navigation of interventional procedures, afterloading in radiotherapy (see §3.6, section " Brachyradiotherapy " - Fig.3.6.7) and others.
  A separate category of X-ray device design solutions is transmission X-ray tomography CT , where the X- ray machine and the opposite electronic detection system are mounted on a portal rotary stand - gantry - described in more detail below.X-ray tomography - CT ", Fig.3.2.4. This includes special constructions of X-ray imaging devices, installed directly on IGRT radiotherapeutic irradiators (see §3.6, section" Isocentric radiotherapy ", Fig.3.6.1c) or tomotherapy (§3.6, part " Modulation of irradiation beams ", Fig.3.6.4a)
  Further technical details of the construction of X-ray devices and their accessories are already outside the scope of this physically focused discussion.

Setting of X-ray parameters
To optimize X-ray diagnostics, it is necessary to set suitable X-ray parameters. In the electrical circuit of the X-ray tube, two basic electrical parameters are regulated and set as needed (the third is only time, the fourth is realized by mechanical arrangement) :
¨ Anode voltage U [kV] ,
which is a high voltage supplied between cathode and anode the energy of the photons of the resulting X-rays, its "hardness". The maximum energy of X-rays in [keV] is numerically practically equal to the anode voltage U in [kV], the mean energy is slightly higher than 1/3 of the max. energy. With increasing anode voltage, the whole spectrum of X-rays shifts towards higher energies (shorter wavelengths) and the relative proportion of higher energies (harder shortwave components) increases .
   In practice, the anode voltage ranges in a wide range from about 20kV to 200kV (depending on the type of displayed structures), in the industrial use of X-rays then higher.
Note: The energy - hardness - of X-rays emitted is often referred to in X-ray jargon as the " quality " of X-rays.
¨ The anode current I [mA]
flowing through the X-ray tube, determines the intensity (fluence) of X-radiation emitted by the X-ray tube I _X . It is most easily regulated by changing the heating of the cathode - the heating current - and thus the temperature of the cathode fiber. The glow current can be regulated simply by means of a rheostat in the glow circuit (in the glow transformer circuit), more recently with special electronic circuits equipped with transistors and thyristors. At higher heating of the cathode fiber, more electrons are emitted, a larger stream of electrons flows through the X-ray and a higher intensity of X-rays is emitted. The average X-ray current is in the range of mA units to about 200mA, the peak current can be significantly higher (in pulse mode). E.g. an X-ray machine with a tungsten anode (Z = 74) supplied with an anode voltage U = 120 kV at a X-ray current of 1 mA emits X-rays with an intensity I _X of approximately 6.10 ¹³ photons /s (follows from the approximate relationship for braking radiation production efficiency given in " X-ray tube ", passage " Braking X-rays ") .
¨ Exposure
is the total amount of X-rays of photons, which determines the quality of X-rays images and also the radiation exposure of the patient. It is given by the product of radiation intensity I _X (photon fluence / s) and exposure time T - it is therefore proportional to the product of anode current by X-ray tube [mA] and exposure time [s]: "milliampere-seconds" mA.s = Q , which is the total charge Q electrons or the electrical amount that passes through the X-ray lamp during exposure (the coefficient of proportionality h is given above in the section "Braking X-rays") . At Q = 1mAs, approx. 10 ¹³ is radiated from the anodeof photons, of which only a small part is used for X-ray imaging - of most photons flying in different directions, only a relatively narrow conical beam is selected by collimation, low energy photons are further removed by filtration (see below).
Note: The energy of X-rays does not depend on the magnitude of current, time or electrical quantity.
  For the acquisition of common skiagraphic images of soft tissues, the exposure to X-rays of about 2 ¸ 6 mAs is used, for the skeleton about 20 ¸ 80 mAs, for CT also 200 mAs. In modern X-ray devices capable of operating in a pulsed mode with high instantaneous power, a high current value [mA] at a short exposure time [s] is preferred to achieve the desired exposure [mAs] - thus reducing the risk of blurring the image with patient movement.
   Based on empirical experience, the recommended value of anode voltage [kV] and exposure [mAs] is determined for each type of X-ray examination, providing a quality image of the required structures at a relatively low radiation exposure. Some devices also use automatic exposure , which electronically switches off the anode voltage in the generator - and thus the exposure - after reaching a certain preset "amount" of X-rays. For the purposes of automatic exposure, the flux of transmitted X-rays is monitored by means of ionization chambersplaced behind the film cassette or behind the flat panel. For digital imaging detectors, presetting the total number of pulses stored in the digital image can also be used to interrupt the exposure. Similarly, exposure optimization works for CT instruments, where according to the signal level from the detectors in the pre-planning radiographic display of SPR (topogram), the optimal current values ??[mA] can be automatically adjusted during self-diagnostic scanning - ATCM ( Automatic Tube Current Modulation ), see below " CT ".
The already generated X-rays are subsequently treated by filtration:
¨ Filtration, collimation 
The soft X-rays of longer wavelengths and the low energy of photons at the beginning of the continuous spectrum of X-ray radiation are of no significance for diagnosis, they are usually absorbed in the skin and shallow layers of tissue - causing only unwanted radiation exposure. Therefore, it is removed by filtration - an aluminum or copper plate about 1.5-4 mm thick is inserted into the radiation path, which absorbs the soft component of X-rays to a large extent, while transmitting the harder component - see the shape of the spectra in Figure 3.2.5. The initial partial filtration of the generated X-rays is already created by passing through the material of the anode, the glass flask of the X-ray tube, the cooling oil, the material of the cover and the outlet window.(thus the X-ray tube glass flask itself acts inherently as a partial filter, equivalent to about 0.5 mm Al; similarly the cooling oil and the X-ray tube cover window) .
   In some special cases when we need sharper and more selective filtering of certain areas of the energy so used filtration K-edge ( K-edge filter ). It is based on significantly increased (" resonant ") absorption of photon radiation at energy equal to or slightly higher than the binding energy of electrons on the K-shell of atoms of the material used (see §1.6, section " Interaction of gamma and X-rays ", Fig.1.64). By combining a standard filter (Al, Cu) and a filter made of a suitable heavier material using the K-edge effect, we obtain a bandpass filter , selecting a certain section of energies from a continuous spectrum of X-rays. This is especially true for mammography , where a molybdenum or rhodium filter cuts off photons of higher energies than about 20-23keV to achieve better contrast (see "X-ray mammography" below). Also for DEXA methods - analysis of absorption using two X-ray energies (see below " CT with 2 X-rays - DSCT: Dual Source and Dual Energy CT ").
   The geometric delimitation of the X-ray beam is performed by collimation (mentioned above) .

Giant. 3.2.5. Basic scheme of X-ray examination.
Left: Arrangement of X-ray tube, filter, DAP-meter, primary and secondary diaphragm, film or detector. Right: Energy spectra of X-rays from X-ray tube, after filtration and after passing through the patient.

Scattered X-rays
When X-rays interact with matter, Compton scattering of photons on free or weakly bound electrons occurs, among other things . These scattered photons fly out of the tissue with lower energy and in different directions . The proportion of scattered radiation is greater the larger the patient (and is also higher for harder X-rays from X-rays - higher voltage [kV]). Scattered radiation degrades the quality of the X-ray image - it reduces its contrast. The possibility of suppressing scattered radiation is mentioned in the following paragraph. This Compton-scattered X-rays further cause some less radiation exposure even outside the X-ray beam itself from the X-ray machine. This radiation exposure is not high, scattering albedo of the human body for X-rays is less than 1% ( albedo was discussed in §1.6, section " Interaction of radiation passing through matter ") . At a distance of 1 m, the radiation dose is about 0.1 m Gy / 1 mAs, in 2 meters only about 0.005 m Gy / 1 mAs. Nevertheless, during X-ray examinations, radiation workers should not stay in the examination room during the exposure, unless necessary, but in a shielded control room - the exception is, for example, interventional radiological procedures.
Filters and screens for X-ray imaging
In the practical diagnostic application of X-rays, it is important to use filters and collimating screens - Fig.3.2.5. Suitable primary apertures ensure the geometric delimitation of the X-ray beam, reaching only the necessary examined area (a sharp image with high spatial resolution is ensured by the fact that the radiation comes from an almost point focus on the anode by X-ray tube, as described above). Immediately behind the X-ray tube is a filter , most often made of aluminum sheet, which absorbs low-energy photons (from the beginning of the continuous X-ray spectrum), which are not usable for imaging (they would penetrate only into the subcutaneous tissue) but would increase the patient's radiation exposure (mentioned above). ) . This is followed by a tube with adjustable orifices for the geometric delimitation of the X-ray beam (size of the penetrating field). A thin plane-parallel ionization chamber is usually mounted on the outlet window of the tube for monitoring the exposure to X-rays, the so-called DAP meter (see below " Radiation load during TRG examination ") , allowing to determine the radiation dose of the patient during X-ray examination - Fig.3.2.5 top left.
A secondary screen is then placed between the patient and the film (or screen or imaging detection system, flat panel) . It is a lattice formed by parallel or diverging absorption lamellae (lead strips) which, through their gaps, transmit only primary X-rays passed in the direction of the original beam, while secondary Compton-scattered photons (moving in other directions) are absorbed in the partitions. It is therefore a collimator  , which attenuates the radiation only minimally in the primary direction, while the attenuation of the obliquely transmitted scattered radiation is considerable. The quality of the secondary screen is determined by the grid density (number of lamellae per centimeter) and the grid ratio (the ratio between the distance of the absorbent strips and their height). Suppression of secondary scattered radiation significantly improves the contrast of the X-ray image. On the other hand, the secondary aperture also absorbs some of the useful X-rays (eg with a Bucky aperture, the attenuation is about 1.8 times) , so it is necessary to increase the exposure. Three types of secondary screens (grids) are used :
- Converging focused Bucky-Potter screen (approx. 10 slats / cm). Bucky The screen has relatively thick partitions (approx. 1 mm), which would be projected into an X-ray image and have a disturbing effect. This disturbing raster is eliminated by moving the aperture during exposure, blurring its image and disappearing into the overall background.
- Parallel fine Lysholm screen (40-60 slats / cm).
- Ultrafine Smith screen (density> 100 lamellae / cm). Due to too high absorption, it is not used in practice.
Terminological note: In radiodiagnostics, it is often customary to use the not very precise generic name " aperture ". More precisely, however, these are collimators and filters .

Visualization and recording of X-ray images
X-rays, carrying density information after passing through the displayed tissue, is invisible to us , so it is necessary to " make it visible " or register it using suitable material and electronic methods. There are basically three ways to display this X-ray :
- Visual observation of the image on a luminescent screen
A luminescent screen is a plate or foil on which a suitable material (such as zinc sulphide, .......) is applied , in which the interaction fluorescence is produced with ionizing X-rays 
. Thus, we can see a projection density image on the luminescent screen via X-rays. The advantage of this simplest method was the possibility of continuous dynamic observation - sciascopy . However, the main disadvantage is the low sensitivity and high radiation exposure of both the patient and the radiologist. .......
- Imaging on photographic film
Ionizing X-rays cause a photochemical reaction in suitable photographic materials, mostly containing silver bromide This photographic emulsion, applied on the surface of a plastic film, forms a photographic film in which the incident X-rays form a latent photographic image - is described in more detail in §2.2 " Photographic detection of ionizing radiation". After development, we receive a negative density photographic image in X-rays.
- Scanning with an electronic imaging detector,
which registers incident X-rays, converts it into electrical impulses and, after adjustment by complex electronic circuits, creates digital density images in computer memory - described in more detail below " Electronic imaging X-ray detectors ." .........
Amplifiers and digital X-ray image sensor, indirect and direct digitization
Direct X-ray photographic film for display belongs to the past, and is gradually replaced by more sophisticated technologies. to increase the sensitivity of the scanning X-ray suitable image enhancement methods are used in the image, more recently methods of electronic image capture. This makes it possible to significantly reduce the required intensity of X-rays and thus the radiation dose for the patient, as well as to reduce the undesired exposure for radiation workers.
- Amplifying foils
 During photographic skiagraphy, amplifying luminescent foils are attached to the film , the task of which is to convert X-rays into light, which is exposed by the photographic film. It consists of a layer of phosphor dispersed in an emulsion of gelatin or nitrocellulose. Use calcium tungstenate (emits blue light), lanthanoxid bromide (blue light), gadolinium-carryover (green light), barium chloride (blue light) ... The movie has to be sensitized to the color of the light from the phosphor. It is already abandoned.
- Xeroradiography ,
where a positively charged semiconductor (selenium) plate is used instead of film. The incident photons of X-rays there evoke a photoeffect, in which the photoelectrons locally compensate for the original positive charge - a latent electrostatic image is created ; in the copier, powder particles of dye are then attracted to differently charged places of the plate, which are finally printed on paper where a visible image is created. It is also abandoned.
- Memory foils
replace the film in the X-ray cassette and retain a latent electron image after radiation exposure. The sensitive layer usually contains europium atoms (BaFCl: Eu ²⁺ , instead of Cl it can be iodine or bromine). The impact of X-rays photons excites in the sensitive layer of the film, electrons are released from the europium atoms, which are trapped in the halide metastable levels of so-called " electron traps " - a latent electron image is formed . This latent image is made visible after exposure by photostimulation using a laser infrared beam: a "trapped" electron is released into the conduction band, after which the electron is captured on the excited surface in the luminescent center., followed by deexcitation to baseline, accompanied by photon emission of light. This light is registered by a sensitive photomultiplier, the generated electrical pulses are sampled and converted by an analog-to-digital converter into digital image information. The device that reads and digitizes the latent image is called a digitizer - it is an indirect digitization of an X-ray image.
- Image intensifiers
During sciascopy, the image on the fluorescent screen ( "shield" ) is amplified by a special image tube - image intensifier. The light image created by the impact of X-rays photons on the fluorescent screen of the inlet window of the tube causes a photoelectric effect on the enclosed photocathode by its emitted photons of visible light. The emitted photoelectrons are accelerated by a voltage between the photocathode and the anode (approx. 10-20kV) and directed by electron optics to a luminescent screen, where they create a reduced inverted image, but its brightness is more than 1000 times greater than the original image. This image is then optically captured by a video camera and displayed on a TV screen or computer monitor. It is still used for older devices, new devices are already supplied with digital flat-panels .
- Electronic imaging detectors - flat panels 
All of the above image amplifiers or television sensors are only a temporary technical solution. New systems are equipped with an electronic digital image sensor on a flat called. Flat panel , consisting of a scintillator (e.g. cesium iodide CsI: Tl or based on gadolinium Gd ₂ O ₂ S: Tb - GOS; see §2.4 of scintillators, the " scintillators and their properties ") and semiconductor optoelectronic amorphous silicon ( a -Si). The detection panel consists of a large number of elements - cells, pixels , assembled into an image matrix of about 2000 ´2000 elements, and more. The most perfect imaging detectors are semiconductor pixel detectors (SPD), see §2.5 " Semiconductor detectors ". The pulses from the individual elements of the detector are stored in multiplex mode with the help of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) directly into the computer's memory - they create a digital X-ray image . Only this technology of so-called direct digitization belongs to the future ... - it was described in more detail below in the section " Electronic X-ray imaging detectors ".
Note: The terminology for " direct " and " indirect " digitization is temporary and will be abandoned soon: all X-ray imeges will be automatically primarily digital (a technology now called "direct digitization ") .

Electronic X-ray imaging detectors
The earlier imaging using photographic film or a luminescent screen is now being replaced by electronic imaging detectors - Fig.3.2.6. The advantage is significantly higher detection sensitivity and wide possibilities of electronic and computer image processing (digitization). All these imaging detectors are based on modern technologies called quantum optoelectronics ( photonics ), which use an internal or external photo effect to convert photons into electrical signals.
¨ Image intensifier
Electronic imaging with image intensifier was widely used in the 1960s and 1980s - fig.3.2.6a. The image intensifier is a special vacuum tube with two windows - input and output. On the inside of the inlet window is a layer of scintillator (mostly cesium iodide) and below it a thin metal layer of photocathode. The incident X-rays cause flashes of light in the input scintillation layer, which electrons eject electrons from the photocathode. The electrons thus generated are then attracted by annular accelerating and focusing electrodes, to which a high positive voltage is connected (gradually increasing up to about 30 kV at the anode at the output scintillator). This electro-optical system, acting as a continuous "electric lens", throws electrons onto an output scintillator (mostly ZnS: Ag), where the accelerated electrons produce intense flashes. The resulting reduced, inverted but very clear ("amplified", intense) image is then captured by an optical TV camcorder and (analog) displayed on the TV screen. More recently, digital CCD camera imaging with computer image recording was used. Image intensifiers or TV sensors were just temporary technical solution, the future belongs to fully digital X-ray image transmitters - flat panels .

Fig.3.2.6 Electronic imaging detectors in X-ray diagnostics.
Left: X-ray acquisition using an image intensifier. Middle: Flat-panel with indirect (scintillation) and direct (semiconductor) conversion of X-rays into electrical signals. Right: Ring-arranged CT detectors with fast ceramic scintillators and photodiodes.

¨ Flat - panels
Modern and more advanced electronic X-ray imaging detectors are so-called flat panels ( flat - they have the surface shape of a thin plate), which provide signals for direct digital X-ray image. The detection panel consists of a large number of elements - cells, pixels , assembled into an image matrix of about 2000 ´ 2000 image elements, and more. The level of the electrical signal from each pixel is proportional to the intensity, resp. the number of X-rays of photons incident on a given location of the flat-panel. From electronic multiplex registration circuits ( multiple read-out ) the image signal via the ADC is fed to the image matrix of the computer, in the individual elements ( pixels ) of which information about the intensity of X-rays from the corresponding location of the irradiated object is stored. In terms of how to convert X-rays into an electrical signal is constructed by flat-panel of two kinds :
- Indirect (scintillation) conversion ,
when photons of X-rays impinge first on the layer of scintillator material (most commonly used cesium iodide CsI: Tl) *) in which they evoke flashes of visible light (scintillators and their use for the detection and spectrometry of ionizing radiation is discussed in detail in §2.4 " Scintillation detection and gamma-ray spectrometry "). This scintillation light then enters the semiconductor photodiodes (mostly silicon - a-Si - amorphous silicon is used as the semiconductor material ), in which an electric charge is released by the internal photo effect (electrons and "holes") and the light is thus converted into an electrical signal - fig. .3.2.6b. This flat panel design is currently the most widely used.
*) Scintillation crystals of some flat panels have a "fibrous" design. They are composed of densely spaced thin vertical needles. This design reduces the lateral scattering of light scintillations, leading to a sharper image.
ISS technology
Some new types of flat panels with scintillation conversion have a somewhat curious design with "opposite orientation" with respect to Fig.3.2.6b: the displayed X-rays are coming on the side of the layer of photodiodes and reading TFT transistors, a scintillation crystal passes through this layer and impinges on the CsI. Scintillation interactions then usually occur in a layer near the photodiodes, thereby reducing lateral scattering by scintillation and improving resolution. This solution, referred to as ISS ( Irradiated Side Sampling ) technology , is made possible by the electronic miniaturization of the photodiode and reading circuit layer, which is thin and has virtually no effect on the transmitted X-rays.
- Direct conversion ,
where photons of X-rays fall directly into semiconductor detectors (suitable material is selenium or CdZnTe - CZT ), where by their interaction they release electric charges and are thus directly converted into an electrical signal(The general principle of semiconductor detectors is given in §2.5 " Semiconductor detectors ") - Fig.3.2.6c. Flat panels with direct conversion are still very rarely used, but they probably have a future. They are also constructed in smaller dimensions (in the order of centimeters - MEDIPIX ) with a very high density of miniature image elements (high image resolution) and are used in special laboratory methods such as X-ray microscopy (mentioned above).
Terminological note: Please do not confuse indirect and direct X-ray conversion in flat panels with indirect and direct digitization of X-ray images! It has nothing to do with it, it is always a direct digitization , only with a different physical-technological design.   In both cases, the electrical signal from the photodiodes or semiconductor detectors is sensed by a special matrix of TFT ( Thin Film Transistors ) transistors implanted in thin-film integrated circuit technologies on a glass support. Scanning, so-called read-out , takes place in multiplex mode in the X and Y directions - it provides coordinate pulses about the position of the X-ray photon detection location in the flat panel. These coordinate pulses are converted to digital form by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and stored in the corresponding memory addresses in the image matrix of the computer - a digital X-ray image is created. The transfer of image data to the acquisition computer from modern flat panels is solved wirelessly using modems ( WiFi ).
  Electronic imaging flat-panels are also used in verification and dosimetric systems of so-called image- guided radiotherapy with modulated beams - in isocentric irradiators with a linear accelerator and in cybernetic gamma knives (§3.6, part " Isocentric radiotherapy " and " Stereotactic radiotherapy SBRT ") ; they are sometimes abbreviated EPID ( Electronic Portal Image Device ).
¨ X-ray detectors for CT
The current CT X-ray detectors work on a similar principle as flat-panels with indirect conversion. They consist of a large number of semicircular elements, each of which is a small scintillation crystal (scintillators based on rare earth-doped silicon oxides, such as lutetium and yttrium - LYSO, or gadolinium oxisulphide, with a very short flash duration) are now used. with photodiode; see below " X-ray tomography - CT ", section " X-ray detectors for CT ".
Properties of electronic X-ray detectors
An important characteristic of electronic imaging detectors is their resolution, which is the smallest distance of two "point" objects at which they still appear as two separate structures; or equivalent to the half-width of the point object image profile. At shorter distances, both objects appear as one, they are not distinguished. The resolution is given mainly by the size of the individual pixel of the detector (this limits the smallest possible point that can be displayed), it is also affected by the scattering of X-rays and light in the detector and the processes of converting X-rays into electrical signals. As in photography, resolution is often measured at the maximum number of lines per millimeter[lp / mm], which can still be distinguished. Modern flat-panels theoretically reach up to 10 lp / mm, which corresponds to a resolution of 0.1 mm; in practice, however, the real resolution is around 2-5 lp / mm. The quality of X-ray images in terms of real resolution is sometimes quantified in detail using the so-called modulation transfer function MTF , which indicates using Fourier harmonic analysis , which details of the object can be displayed with a given contrast.
  Another important parameter of electronic X-ray detectors is the sensitivity of the sensor . It is reported numerically using the detective quantum efficiency DQE ( Detection Quantum Efficiency), which is the percentage of X-ray photons incident on the detector that is actually recorded by the detector and used to create the image (the rest is uselessly absorbed by the input window or detector material without a scintillation or electrical response) .   Electronic imaging detectors enable more detailed analysis of fine structures using enlarged image sections - so-called " zoom " or " magnification ". In the case of image intensifiers, this is an analog zoom (achieved by changing the voltage), in which a smaller part of the input area is "stretched" over the entire image at the output. The flat panel is a digital zoom - additional software zoom of the selected part of the image, without changing the resolution. If we want to maintain a high image quality on the magnified image (maintain the same signal-to-noise ratio as in the basic image), it is necessary to increase the number of incident photons, which will increase the dose. Digital X-ray systems, especially CT, are equipped with software providing a number of other options for computer image editing - post-processing .

X-ray planar imaging - skiagraphy, sciascopy
X-ray projection
The human body is a complex 3D system of a large number of differently arranged tissues, organs, bones, body cavities, etc. During X-ray radiation, these individual structures can "shadow" and overlap each other - this can prevent their good display and recognition of possible anomalies. This interference and the overlap of the displayed structures substantially depends on the angle of the transmission beam. As a rule, it is possible to find the projection angle for which the lesion is best shown, without disturbing the surrounding structures. Based on the long-term experience of radiologists, certain projections are prescribed for planar X-ray examinations of each organ or area, that provide the best imaging - eg anterior-posterior AP projections, anterior-posterior PA, left LL ( latero-lateral, also SIN-sinister) or right RL (right-lateral, also DX-dextrum) side projections, oblique projections left LAO (left anterior oblique), LPO (left posterior oblique), or right RPO, RAO and other projections and special positions. The problem of overlapping structures is largely eliminated in CT X-ray tomography - see " X-ray tomography - CT " below, which provides images from different angles and projections.
  In terms of X-ray imaging and processing, planar X-ray diagnostics are divided into two groups :
¨ Skiagraphy
In simple X-rays, called skiagraphy, incident X-rays passed through the examined tissue on photographic film containing silver halides (silver bromide), in which photochemical reaction leads to the release of silver from the bond in the compound - formed latent image , which is in inducing in the developer visualized with the density of grains of colloid silver; the remaining silver bromide is dissolved in the stabilizer. The blackening density of the film is proportional to the amount of X-rays passed. The resulting X-ray photographic image represents a negative imaging of tissue density: sites with low density (soft tissues) have lower absorption and therefore high blackening, sites with high density (eg bones) absorb X-rays more and are therefore shown light (low blackening) on the film.
   For X-ray imaging, special films are used, the emulsion of which is thicker and contains an increased content of silver halides compared to conventional photographic materials *). Films are produced in various sizes - the smallest fields of approx. 2x2cm are used for dental X-ray diagnostics, the largest formats of approx. 43x43cm for lung imaging, or 96x20cm on the spine. When shooting, movies are stored in a special light-tight cassette, provided with metal marks and letters at the edge, which are projected onto the film during exposure, are visible after development and ensure the geometric orientation and identification of the image. In the dark chamber, they are then removed from the cassettes, special concentrated developers are used to develop them, providing high contrast and saturation of the blackening of the film; the process of developing, setting and drying is carried out in developing machines. Overall, however, the use of films and the "wet process" is in decline, the future belongs to electronic scanning and digitization of X-ray images (see below). In connection with this, in the case of modern digital devices, the difference between skiagraphy and sciascopy is largely blurred - in a computer system it is possible to choose whether the recording of a digital image will be static or dynamic.
*) The photochemical sensitivity of films is relatively low for X-rays. To increase the sensitivity (and thus reduce the required amount of X-rays, reduce the radiation exposure of the patient), amplifying luminescent foils are attached to the film , see below.
¨ Skiascopy
As skiascopy or fluoroscopy becomes continuous visual observation image of the transmitted X-rays, originally on the fluorescent screen ( "shield"). Direct sciascopy was used very often in the past, but due to the high radiation exposure of the examining radiologist (and also the patient), it has already been abandoned. Indirect sciascopy is performed on devices equipped with an image intensifier and electronic image capture, more recently direct electronic digital image capture by flat panel (see below). This indirect sciascopy is now used to investigate dynamic processes (coronary arteriography, transhepatic cholangiography, ...) and in interventional procedures where visual inspection is required - X-ray navigation of precise work performed inside the body *) - insertion of various probes and catheters, implantation of pacemakers , coronary angioplasty, insertion of vascular or uterorenal stents, ... etc. - see below "Subtraction angiography", fig.3.2.7. In radiotherapy, it is the introduction of radiophores by afterloading during brachytherapy (see §3.6, section " Brachyradiotherapy") .
*) To reduce the radiation exposure, pulse mode is now used in sciascopic imaging : the X-ray does not glow continuously, but periodically turns on only for short moments (approx. 0.1 sec. With a repetition rate of approx. 4 frames / sec.)., During which produces an image. to improve the visual quality of the images thus generated sequential use is sometimes so called. recursive filter , consisting of the weighted summation of several consecutive images.. ....
   X-ray tube and an opposing image sensing system is often mounted on a special rack-shaped "C" - called C-arm - fig.3.2.7b. This arm can electromotor via pivot to different angles, which allows quality display in different projections. Even more flexible possibilities of movements of the X-ray machine and the imaging detector around the patient are provided by the so-called U-arm (independent movement of the X-ray machine and the detector on the stand) - Fig.3.2.7c. Alternatively, so-called folding walls can be used ; these possibilities were mentioned above, the section "Mechanical design of X-ray devices" .

Contrast agents. Subtraction radiography.
One of the main difficulties in soft tissue X-ray imaging is the small differences in the absorption of X-rays by individual tissues *), leading to low image contrast and difficulty in distinguishing some structures.
*) The tissues of the human body are mainly formed by atoms of light elements (hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sodium, ...) and have a similar density of just over 1 g / cm ³ . Therefore, the absorption coefficients for X-rays in individual tissues do not differ much (with the exception of more massive bones and lighter aerated lungs).
   In certain cases, the natural absorption differences between the tissues can be increased and thus the resulting contrast of the X-ray image can be improved by applying suitable contrast agents. Contrast agents artificially increase the contrast of tissue imaging by causing greater differences in the X-ray absorption of the examined tissue relative to the environment. Usually we try to increase the absorption of X-rays by using substances containing atoms of heavy elements such as barium (cavities, eg stomach) or iodine (vessels, organs) . X-rays are strongly absorbed by these substances , which highlights the cavities that are filled with them (stomach, digestive tract, blood vessels) . If such a substance is introduced into the examined area - the gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, bile or urinary tract, the structure filled in this way shows a significantly increased absorption of X-rays and is clearly and contrastily displayed on the X-ray image., including any defects and anomalies. After application, contrast agents can enter the organ under investigation either directly (direct application to the gastrointestinal tract or blood vessels) or indirectly via metabolism (imaging of structures in the liver or kidneys).
   Contrast agents are classified according to various criteria. According to water solubility: insoluble (barium suspension, iodine substances oil and suspension) and soluble ( hydrosoluble ). According to their ionization (dissociation) in solution: ionic (dissociate in solution into anion bearing contrast iodine and cation) and nonionic . According to pharmacokinetics, metabolism in the body and route of excretion:nephrotropic (excreted by the kidneys) used for angiography, urography, contrast CT; hepatotropic (excreted by the liver and bile) for cholangiography. In terms of the achieved change in X-ray absorption, we divide contrast agents into two basic types:
¨ Positive contrast agents , which increase the absorption of X-rays. The most commonly used contrast agents are based on barium and iodine .
Barium sulphate (BaSO ₄ ) is a water-insoluble compound whose suspension ("barium slurry") is used in the examination of the digestive tract.
Currently, the most commonly used contrast agents are based on iodine , which has two advantageous properties :
1. ¹²⁷I shows high absorption for X-rays of the energies used in X-ray diagnostics - it provides a good positive contrast of the structures into which it enters.
2. Iodine can form compounds with a number of organic substances that behave in the body in the necessary well-defined way. In such an organic substance, the absorption properties for X-rays are given by the bound iodine atoms, while the other organic part of the molecule determines the pharmacokinetics and distribution of the substance in the organism - where the substance "gets" or where it is taken up and excreted.
   Iodine contrast agents are used in the form of organic compounds in which iodine is tightly bound, mostly in the benzene nuclei of cyclic (aromatic) hydrocarbons. It is mainly triiodaminobenzoic acid, where 3 iodine atoms are attached to the benzene nucleus (1,3,5-triiodo-2-aminobenzoic acid derivatives, they are usually ionic and non-ionic ) . Furthermore, pyridine derivatives with one or two attached iodine atoms in the molecule are used (they usually have the character of ionic substances) .
   Water-soluble (hydro-soluble) contrast agents, especially ionic ones, can cause some undesirable side effects in the body, allergic reactions can be dangerous .
¨ Negative contrast agents reducing X-ray absorption. These are mainly gases (air, carbon dioxide) that are applied to the cavities (eg the spinal canal). Today, they are practically no longer used .
   In some cases, especially in the digestive tract, the so-called double contrast is used : first a positive contrast agent (barium suspension) is applied and then a negative contrast agent - air (from effervescent powder), which stretches the positive contrast agent to the walls of the examined volume.
X-ray subtraction radiography. DSA
A special method of increasing the contrast is the so-called subtraction radiography , consisting in the subtraction of two images of the same area, differing in the presence and absence, or distribution, of the contrast agent. The goal of subtraction is to highlight anatomical structures that would be little clear, indistinct, and difficult to recognize on conventional X-rays.
   In the early days of the method (50s and 60s), film (photographic) subtraction was used, in which the X-ray image with the contrast medium was combined and overlaid with the negatively re-photographed image without the contrast medium. This combination (masking) created the resulting subtraction image, in which only structures filled with contrast material are visible. Further technical development, leading through analogue television subtraction , has resulted in the method of digital subtraction , which is the most perfect and now used exclusively. This method is used mainly for the selective imaging of the arterial and venous vascular bed - the contrast agent is injected at the appropriate time using a specially inserted catheter. It is called digital subtraction angiography (DSA) for arterial bed or phlebography for venous imaging.

Fig.3.2.7. a) Principle scheme of digital subtraction radiography operation. b) X-ray machine with electronic image sensor mounted on a C-arm. c) X-ray device in U-arm arrangement.

A simplified diagram of the principle of digital subtraction radiography is drawn in Fig.3.2.7a. The X-ray beam from the X-ray beam illuminates the patient's body and the transmitted radiation is detected by a digital image sensor ( flat-panel ), consisting of a scintillator and a sensitive CCD image sensor. The most perfect imaging detectors are SPD semiconductor pixel detectors (see §2.5 " Semiconductor detectors ") , mounted in so-called flat panels . The X-ray machine and the detector are placed opposite each other on the so-called C-arm (Fig. 3.2.7b). First, a native X-ray image of the examined area without a contrast agent (formerly called a mask ) is scanned into the computer's memory ., and then an X - ray image after application of a contrast agent. Numerical digital subtraction of the native image from the contrast-enhanced image subtracts and cancels out all structures that have not changed (eg skeleton) and remains only what makes the two images different: contrast-filled cavities and vessels. The resulting subtraction image is created , in which only the structure filled with contrast medium is selectively displayed, while all other anatomical structures are more or less disturbed .
  Proper subtraction can be adversely affected or impaired by tissue movementsduring the examination (in the time interval between the two images), such as breathing movements, heart pulsation, patient movement. To eliminate these adverse effects, a number of images are recorded at short intervals, from which images suitable for subtraction are selected. In addition, to monitor the kinetics of cardiac activity, the sequence of scanned images is synchronized with the ECG signal and images corresponding to end-diastole and end-systole are subtracted; It is thus possible, among other things, to obtain an image of the ejection fraction and to reveal if necessary. heart wall motility disorders.
The historical name " angio-line "
Frequently used name " angio-line " comes from the time when angiography performed on X-ray films (60th-70th years). At that time, a series- line had to be prepared for the skiagraphic device - cassettes with X-ray films in a row, which were exchanged and exposed in quick succession after spraying the contrast medium. They were then developed and examined to see where the contrast agent had gradually reached - or not - due to the occlusion of the vessel.
X-ray navigated interventional procedures
Subtraction angiography was originally developed as a diagnostic method. With the help of modern angiographic equipment and advanced methods of vascular medicine, in addition to diagnostics, it is possible to immediately perform the necessary interventional performance under detailed control of X-ray imaging immediately after finding out the pathological conditions in the vascular bed . These are, for example, coronary angioplasty (PTCA) - dilation of the narrowed coronary (coronary) artery of the myocardium using a special catheter equipped with a balloon at the end, with or. by installing a so-called stent , which remains stretched inside the coronary vessel and prevents it from shrinking again.

X-ray tomography - CT
Classical X-ray is planar - it is a two-dimensional projection of tissue density to a certain plane. However, real tissue is a three-dimensional object , so a planar image that is a two-dimensional projection of reality can capture only part of reality. We cannot find out anything from the planar image about the arrangement of the tissue in the "deep third dimension", perpendicular to the displayed plane. Planar images have serious pitfalls in this respect - the possibility of overlapping and superposition of structuresstored at different depths. We help here by displaying in several different projections, but the risk of a false finding or non-detection of an anomaly in the depths of the organism, covered by another structure, can never be ruled out. In the planar display occurs radiography the X-rays from different depths, the superposition and accumulating information on the distribution density of hloubkovývh all layers of tissues and organs in a common image. The resulting response in the image is the sum of the contributions from the individual layers of tissue - not only from the sites of the examined lesion, but also from the layers located above the lesion and below the lesion. This will detail the structure of the organ under investigation in a certain depth disguise image information from more distant and closer layers. The individual tissues and organs are shown in summary on the planar image , they overlap. We are not always able to unambiguously determine which organs and structures the X-rays have gone through and been weakened by. Superposition of radiation from different depths of the imaged object further leads to a reduction in the contrast of the imaging of structures and lesions.
   To overcome these disadvantages of planar X-ray diagnostics and to obtain a complex imaging of structures at different depths, transmission X-ray tomography *) has been developed to provide a three-dimensional imaging of tissue density in an organism. One of the main advantages of tomographic imaging is significantly higher contrast imaging of lesions that do not overlap on radiation from surrounding layers on transverse sections.
*) Greek tomos = section, rust - tomographic representation consists of certain sections ( slice ), primarily transverse, a larger number of which creates a three-dimensional image. The examined area is divided into a large number of thin layers (sections), which are each scanned separately at many different angles, and from the local attenuation of X-rays, the density image of the layer is mathematically reconstructed in a computer. We can then view the examined area on the computer screen in individual thin layers - as if we were "cutting" the patient transversely, looking inwards at each incision and then folding it again (without damage).
  The forerunner of the current CT computed tomography was motion tomography : the X-ray machine and the examination table with the patient moved in opposite directions to each other in such a way that for a layer at a certain depth both movements were compensated and a sharp image was obtained, while in the other layers the image was motion blurred. distinct. However, the quality and contrast of such an image were not great (completely incomparable with CT), the method is long abandoned.
   Tomographic X-ray is achieved by irradiating the examined area at a number of different angles (in the range 0-180-360 °): the X-ray machine and the X-ray detector located opposite it rotate around the patient's body *), with a narrow X-ray -radiation radiates the examined tissue and its intensity is detected and converted into an electrical signal (Fig.3.2.8a); the attenuation of the beam due to tissue absorption is evaluated. From the number of integral values obtained by irradiation under a series of angles 0-360 °, the absorption map is then reconstructed by back projection , creating a cross-sectional density image of the examined area in a plane perpendicular to the X-ray and opposite detector rotation axis - see "Density image formation" below . In this image, structures stored at different depths in the organism are sensitively and with high resolution - it is a tomographic image . In such an image, we have endless possibilities of viewing the scanned object from all angles and in various layers (sections).
*) The X-ray machine and the opposite detection system are mounted on a special annular stand called gantry ( gantry = portal, through-supporting structure ), enabling the X-ray-detector system to rotate around the examination bed by means of an electric motor .
   By gradual longitudinal linear displacement of the patient with respect to the X-ray-detector system, we can create a series of cross-sectional images (individual layers), which placed next to each other create a three-dimensional tomographic image of the examined area. Due to the computational complexity of the reconstruction procedure, this can only be done with the help of a computer - therefore this method is called computerized tomography CT ( Computerized Tomography) or computed tomography . The exact name "X-ray Transmission Computerized Tomography" did not take hold due to its length.

Fig.3.2.8. X-ray computerized tomography CT.
a) Basic principal scheme of CT. b) Principle of spiral CT. c) 64-slice CT instrument.

In addition to spatial tomography imaging, the main advantage of CT compared to conventional X-ray imaging is significantly higher contrast- is able to recognize and display even slight differences in the linear coefficients of X-ray attenuation that penetrates the examined tissue. This is primarily due to the principle of transverse section imaging using a narrow beam without being affected by adjacent layers and electronic X-ray detection, which is able to capture finer differences and a wider range of dynamics than conventional X-ray film. Methods of computer reconstruction and image filtering, as well as the possibility of flexible setting of optimal image modulation (brightness, contrast) also contribute to the excellent density resolution. Computer software for CT also has a number of tools for structural image editing, creation of three-dimensional images of certain organs, reconstruction of sections in other planes than the initial transverse in which the patient was scanned.
   The result of CT are real "anatomical sections "of the patient's body, on which organs and tissues can be seen separately , in contrast to planar X-rays, where they are shown in summary and overlap.
  Trial, "exploratory" or "planning " radiographic acquisition CT , abbreviated SPR ( Scan Projection Radiograph ), also known as Scanogram or Topogram. It is scanned by a stationary (non-rotating) system of X-rays and detectors, mostly in AP or PA projection, in which the bed and patient move over the gantry. This creates a planar image similar to classical skiagraphy. This image is then used to determine the beginning and end of the displayed area of ??the body. Furthermore, the SPR image can be used for automatic exposure - obtaining absorption (attenuation) data for automatic regulation of the anode current [mA] by X-ray ATCM ( Automatic Tube Current Modulation ) in order to optimize the relationship between quality image and radiation exposure of the patient. This anatomical dose modulation technology significantly reduces the radiation dose in real time while maintaining the quality of the images.

Development of tomographic imaging method. 5 generations of CT devices.
General efforts to reconstruct a three-dimensional image based on a two-dimensional image (or a set of one-dimensional projections) date back to 1917, when J. Radon derived an integral transformation (now called the Radon transformation ) between a set of line integrals and a set of transverse section points. In 1963, A. Cormack applied these results and extended them to the case of X-rays passing through partial absorption by a three-dimensional object. And in 1972, G.N.Hounsfield completed the development of the first CT device . 
   In the following years, the great advantages of CT were proven and these devices became very widespread. During the technical development, there were also significant changes in the design of individual electronic and mechanical parts of CT devices. In view of this technical development, CT devices are usually divided into five generations :
¨ 1st generation: X-rays from the X-ray tube were collimated into a thin beam (cylindrical "pencil" shape) and after irradiation with the patient detected by the opposite detector (as shown in Fig. 3.2.4a), rotating together with the X-ray tube.
¨ 2nd generation: X-rays from the X-ray tube are collimated into a fan shape and after passing through the patient it is detected by a larger number of detectors
, placed in a row on a circular section opposite the X - ray, rotating together with the X - ray machine.
¨ 3rd generation: X-rays from the X-ray tube are collimated into the shape of a wider fan similar to the 2nd generation, but the transmitted radiation is detected by a large number of detectors placed on a circular arc in several rows (Fig.3.2.8b) - more slices - multi-slice CT . The continuation of the 3rd generation devices are the spiral high-speed multidetector MDCT systems described below .
¨ 4th generation: the detectors are arranged stationary in a complete circle (rings, or several rings lying next to each other) around the patient, while only the X-ray machine rotates.
¨ 5th generation: cardio-tomograph with electron beam - EBT - Electron Beam CT , described below, fig.3.2.10.
   Generation 4 and 5 devices are not very widespread, because at a higher price they do not bring significant benefits for clinical practice compared to modern design solutions for generation 3 devices (high-speed multidetector systems MDCT, see below ).
   Along with the technical improvement of X-ray CT, the tomographic principle was also used in other imaging modalities. In addition to optical CT, scintigraphic tomographic methods were developed - SPECT single photon emission tomography and PET positron emission tomography (Chapter 4 "Scintigraphy", §4.3 " Tomographic cameras ". And also the most complex tomographic imaging method of nuclear magnetic resonance NMRI (§3.4, part " Nuclear magnetic resonance ").
   Note: For special technical purposes of imaging the structure of small objects, the so-called X-ray micro-tomography ( m CT) mentioned below (§3.3, section " Radiation defectoscopy ") .

Formation of the density image
If, according to Fig. 3.2.4 on the left, the X-ray beam emitted by the X-ray and falling on the examined area has an initial intensity (photon flux in 1 s) I _o , then its intensity I after tissue passage will be I = I _o . e ^{- Sm (i, j). D x} , where m(i, j) is the linear attenuation factor of X-radiation penetrating the tissue site at coordinates i, j and D x is the magnitude (length in the beam direction) of the tissue element. The values ??of the coefficients m (i, j) depend on the local density and the proton number of the individual sites (i, j) of the tissue. By logarithm, this relationship can be adjusted to the form: ln (I / I _o ) = Sm(i, j). D x, which states that the logarithm of the ratio of the intensities of X-rays entering and leaving the examined tissue is equal to the sum of the products of the linear attenuation coefficients m and D x paths that the X-rays photons at each point of the tissue overcome.
   By measuring at different positions (angles) of the X-ray machine and the detector, a number of values of the attenuation ratio ln (I / I _o ) are obtained. The computer then basically solves a system of linear equations of the above shape, which obtains the values of the linear X-ray attenuation coefficients of tissue elements in individual sites (i, j) of tissue - a picture of tissue density in a transverse section.
   In practice, the above straightforward procedure is not followed. The resulting transverse CT image is obtained by computer reconstruction from one-dimensional profiles of the intensity distribution of the transmitted X-ray beam when rotating the X-ray machine and opposite detectors around the examined object. For this reconstruction, the method of filtered back projection is usually used , sometimes even a more perfect (but computationally demanding) method of iterative reconstruction *).
*) Iterative reconstruction is a mathematical algorithm for finding the most accurate image by successive approximations and refinement of the initial "rough" image. It is based on an image obtained by back projection and consists of several repetitionsfour consecutive steps - " reconstruction loops ": 1. In the first step, the image created by the rear projection is recalculated in the opposite way as if the original data. 2. These are then compared with the "raw" data actually captured during detection. 3. New data for rear projection will be adjusted according to the differences found. 4. The image is recalculated and the whole operation is repeated. After several repetitions of these iterations, we obtain a clear and high-quality image. The number of iterations can be set and optimized. Correction algorithms and noise filtering methods are included in the procedure. This method provides higher quality images with reduction of noise and artifacts created during reconstruction. Furthermore, in some examinations, we can significantly reduce the patient's exposure and radiation dose, while maintaining sufficiently high-quality images.
   These reconstruction methods, which are analogous to SPECT, are briefly described in §4.3 " Tomographic scintigraphy ", passage " Computer reconstruction of SPECT " *). And central control software algorithm is sometimes called reconstruction kernel ( core grain ).
*) I apologize to professional radiologists that it is not included in this chapter. Our professional materials are primarily focused on nuclear physicsand radionuclide scintigraphy. This angle of view may be inspiring for colleagues in the field of X-ray diagnostics ..? ..
   The density of the examined tissue is usually compared with the density of water and in the CT image is numerically presented in the so-called Hounsfield units HU = 1000. ( m _tissue - m _water ) / m _water , introduced by a leading pioneer in the CT G.N.Hounstfield area (along with ALCormack) . The use of a factor of 1000 (instead of the usual 100%, where we would get decimal values) reflects a high density resolution CT. The value of HU = -1000 corresponds to zero density (vacuum, air), for water it is HU = 0, bones have a density of the order of HU = 100 ¸ 1000, sometimes even higher. Aerated lungs have HU approx. -800, fat HU = -40 ¸ -120, soft tissue density is HU = 20 ¸ 80. Such a large range of densities is not able to display linearly in brightness linearly; also the human eye is only able to distinguish a few tens of shades of gray. For optimal image presentation, we therefore help by appropriate modulation of image brightness and contrast . If we are interested in differences in tissues with a similar density (this is usually the case in soft tissues), we use this modulation to select only a narrow part of the whole range of densities - the so-called window, whose range of densities is displayed in the entire brightness range of the screen. We get well-drawn images of the required structures and by moving the windows we can gradually obtain detailed information about tissues with different densities.

X-rays detectors for CT
The task of these detectors is to capture photons of X-rays passing through the examined tissue and convert them into electrical signals for further electronic processing for the purpose of computer reconstruction of density sections. In general, the principles set out in Chapter 2 "Detection and spectrometry of ionizing radiation" apply to this area, with the proviso that only detection is applied, not spectrometry. The basic requirement here is a high sensitivity of X-ray photon detection and a high detection rate , ie a short dead time.
   Two types of detectors are most often used for X-ray detection :

• Ionization chambers filled with compressed xenon gas (multiple anodes and cathodes in one tube form a series of detectors).
• Scintillation detectors with scintillation crystals NaI (Tl), CsI (Tl), Bi ₄ Ge ₃ O ₁₂ (BGO), Lu ₂ SiO ₅ (Ce) (LSO), Lu _1.9 Y _0.1 SiO ₅ (LYSO), CdWO ₄ ; the latter four have the advantage of high detection efficiency at small dimensions (the properties of scintillators are discussed in detail in §2.4, section " Scintillators and their properties "). Scintillators based on ceramic materials (silicon oxides), doped with rare earths (such as lutetium, gadolinium or yttrium) and possibly and other elements, sometimes referred to as UFC (Ultra Fast Ceramic) - ultra-fast ceramic detectors.
  Scintillation flashes are captured by either photomultipliers or phototransistors ; significantly simpler and cheaper phototransistors or photodiodes are sufficient, because it is only a simple detection, not spectrometry, another advantage is the miniature dimensions.

Multidetector, multi-slice and spiral CT; Cone-Beam CT
Gradual scanning of CT images by a system of one X-ray machine and one detector, as described so far here according to Fig. 3.2.4a for easier explanation of the method, was used in the first generations of CT equipment in the 70s and 80s. Its disadvantage was considerable length (one cut lasted several minutes). Newer generations of CT devices already use a larger number of detectors (approx. 1000). An X-ray is circled, the beam of primary radiation of which is obscured by a collimator into the shape of a fan (with an angle of approx. 40°), and opposite it a corresponding circular section with a system of 300-1000 detectors (Fig. 3.2.8b). The scanning time of one slice is reduced to less than 1 second.
  The first types of CT devices had a rotating part - X-ray machine and detectors - connected to the static power supply and evaluation part by a cable , which did not allow continuous rotation (after one turn, the X-ray machine did not twist). Newer types (from 80s) are used for power and signal transmission technology " sliding ring " ( slip-ring ) sensing electric toothbrushes, permitting rapid and continuous rotation (with an unlimited number of revolutions in one direction).
   The original generation of CT instruments scanned only one cross section of the examined area during one rotation. To increase the speed of CT examination of larger areas, it is always used in newer generations of devicesseveral detectors , resp. several detector rings, placed side by side in the axial (longitudinal) direction - MDCT (Multi Detector CT). This allows (with a suitable shaping of the X-ray beam from the X-ray machine) the simultaneous scanning of several transverse sections side by side, the examination of several thin layers simultaneously. We are talking about " multi-slice ", so-called multi-slice CT devices ( slice = slice ) - 4, 6, 8, 16, 64 - slice. The technical design of CT devices is constantly improving. The number of detectors and the speed of rotation of the gantry rotor increases (now approx. 0.3 s / revolution) - these are high-speed multidetector systemsMDCT. Individual transverse sections can be scanned in two ways :
- Sequential scanning , where only the X-ray detector system rotates and the bed does not move with the patient. The individual layers are scanned gradually - independently by individual rings of detectors.
- In the case of so-called spiral CT ( helical ), in addition, during the rotation of the X-ray there is a slow automatic movement of the bed with the patient (the X-ray path effectively appears as a spiral) - Fig.3.2.8b, c, followed by three-dimensional reconstruction; here, in principle, it is possible to achieve whole-body CT imaging. The horizontal distance by which the lounger moves between two adjacent X-ray cycles - the "rise" of the spiral - is called pitch factor [mm].
ECG-synchroized CT angiography
A significant technical advance in the field of cardiac imaging is non-invasive electrocardiographically synchronized angiography by multidetector computed tomography - MSCTA . The main use of this method is twofold :
1. MSCT native calcium score - detection and quantification of calcificates in coronary arteries (calcium content in coronary artery plaques). Usually, risk groups are assessed according to Agaston's calcium score (up to 5 groups).
2. MSCT coronarography - contrast imaging of epicardial coronary arteries to diagnose the extent and severity of coronary involvement in ischemic heart disease.
   By combining both methods, we can display the soft and calcified part of the plaque, determine the nature, extent and severity of the disease, with or. indications for invasive examination with determination of the method of revascularization.
Cone-Beam CT
For some purposes, a CT image with a widely collimated cone-beam CT (CBCT ) is used, which illuminates the patient and impinges on the opposite flat-panel imaging (its principle is described in §3.2, passage " Electronic X-ray imaging ") . The X-ray tube and the opposite flat-panel rotate around the examined object on a common gantry. Such a CBCT system is installed on radiotherapy irradiators (linear accelerators) using the image-controlled radiotherapy technique - IGRT (§3.6, section " Modulation of irradiation beams "), or is used in small dental CT devices (listed below).
CT with 2 X-rays tubes - DSCT: Dual Source and Dual Energy CT
Another technical improvement of CT consists in the construction of devices that have 2 X - rays - two X-ray/detector systems (placed perpendicular to each other), which can scan simultaneously (Fig.3.2.9) . The device is referred to as Dual Source CT ( DSCT ). It can work in two basic modes, providing two advantages:
¨ 1. Both X-ray tubes operate at the same voltage Þ "dual system"
- increasing the speed and shortening the acquisition time with reducing the time resolution to about 80ms. This is especially important for CT of the heart (with a higher heart rate).

Fig.3.2.9. CT device with two X-rays - Dual Source CT and Dual Energy CT.

¨ 2. Two X-ray tubes operate at different anode voltage (eg. 140kV and 80kV **) Þ possibility of scanning with dual-energy ( DECT - Dual Energy CT ):
each of the two X-ray tubes creates X-rays of different energies. We get pictures of the same place. This makes it possible not only to better quantify the density distribution, but also to determine two different density analyzes *) - similar analyzes of density images, as for tissue composition using the Absorptiometers method , see below "Bone densitometry", Fig.3.2.6). It is provided not only by DEXA (Dual Energy X-ray detailed images of anatomy, but in perspective it will allow to distinguish different types of tissue (distinguish eg bones, blood vessels, adipose tissue), different types of kidney stones, deposition of sodium urate crystals in joints (bottoms), or quantify the distribution of contrast agent in myocardial infarction (and to assess functional impairment in morphological coronary artery disease).
*) Different types of substances (and tissues) differ not only by specific values of linear attenuation coefficients m for X radiation of a certain energy, but also by a somewhat different dependence m(E _X ) of absorption for different energies E _X of X-radiation. This is due to the different electron density configuration for the different molecular composition of the analyte. Mathematical analysis of the exponential laws of absorption I = I _o .e ^{- m (Ex) .d} for individual energies E _X and tissue types with absorption coefficients m (E _X ) (by logarithm the relevant exponential equations are converted to linear) it is possible to determine the proportion of absorption in different tissues. This can in principle be used to additionally distinguish different types and compositions of tissues based on differences in the density images of the same site, obtained with different X-ray energies.
**) X-ray spectra for 80 and 140keV are continuous and partially overlap. In addition to the different anode voltages, two different effective energies of X-rays are also achieved by special sharp filtration using the K-edge effect (mentioned above in the section "Filtration, collimation").
Multiplex DECT
An alternative to dual DECT energy tomography is the use of a single X-ray detector system, in which the voltage is multiplexed to X-ray during spiral scanning.

Quality control and imaging properties of CT devices
Testing of imaging properties of CT devices is performed using special phantoms of cylindrical shapes - see " Phantoms and phantom measurements ", section " Tomographic phantoms for CT " .

Electron Beam CT (EBT)
In addition to the described CT design, now "classic" with a rotating X-ray, a completely different, physically interesting solution has been developed that does not contain an X-ray at all . X-rays are created by the impact of fast electrons, fired by an " electron gun ", on a metal target ring - anode, inside which the object under investigation is located (Fig.3.2.10). The electron beam from the electron gun is directed to the desired location of the target ring by magnetic deflection by means of deflection coils , powered by a suitable electrical signal. By supplying the deflection coils with alternating electric current of a suitable periodic course
the electron beam rotates at an angular frequency w and, during this circular motion, gradually strikes individual points on the circumference of the target ring. In each affected area, braking X-rays are generated , the beam of which illuminates the examined object (patient's body) at a corresponding angle . Thus, a rotating electron beam generates a rotating source of X-rays around the circumference of the target ring, as if an X-ray were rotating there. The braking X-ray passes through an annular collimator with radially oriented septa, which shapes it into a fan-shaped bundle .
   This X-ray, passed through the examined object (patient's tissue), is detected electronically(as with conventional CT) by means of an annular array of detectors, overlapping the collimator from the inside. With a suitable geometric arrangement of the collimator septum, they shield the X-radiation that would come directly from the target ring to the back of the individual detectors. Newer types of EBT devices have several side-by-side target rings and several ring arrays of detectors.

Fig.3.2.10. Basic principle scheme of X-ray tomography using electron beams

This design solution has two advantages:
¨ It does not contain any mechanically moving parts - the rotation of the beam is electromagnetic.
¨ Allows very fast tomography - the electromagnetically deflected beam can rotate much faster than is achievable with mechanical rotation. This is advantageous for monitoring fast processes such as gated CT - in Fig. 3.2.5, ECG trigger pulses are fed to the acquisition computer together with pulses from X-ray detectors.
  However, the disadvantage here is the considerable complexity and cost (price) of the device, due to which this type of device has not yet become very widespread in practice. It is probably not possible to expect a greater expansion of these systems in the future either, as rapid technical progress in the construction of conventional CT - high-speed multidetector MDCT systems (or with two X-rays) solves most of the advantages of EBT, cheaper and more advantageous for common practice.

X-ray bone densitometry
Radiographic examination of the skeleton is one of the most common and most important X-ray diagnostics. A special method in this area is bone densitometry - a method for determining the density (density) of bone tissue based on the rate of X-ray absorption , determined by X-ray absorption photometry (Radiographic Absorptiometry - RA).
    The simplest method is to transmit a narrow beam of radiation with a single energy (SPA - Single Photon Absorptiometry). The disadvantage of this method is that it is not possible to determine from the total absorption of X-rays which part is caused by bone and which part by soft tissue.
    A more advanced densitometric method is X-ray absorption photometry using two energies of the X-ray beam (DEXA - Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometers), such as a pair of effective energies of 50keV + 100keV, or 35keV + 75keV. Different ratios of X-ray absorption in soft tissue and bone are used here at low energy and at high radiation energy - different values of linear attenuation coefficients m . Mathematical analysis of the exponential laws of absorption I = I _o .e ^{- m .x} for individual energies and tissue types (by logarithm the relevant exponential equations are converted to linear) the proportion of absorption in soft tissue and bone itself is determined, from which it is possible determine bone density.
  It is calibrated with a suitable bone phantom (or hydroxyapatite), the instruments have their internal calibration phantoms. The bone mineral content is quantified using the Bone Mineral Content ( BMC) parameters in [g / cm] and the Bone Mineral Density ( BMD ) area density in [g / cm ² ]. These parameters are compared with sets of reference (normal) values ??and relative indices (ratios) called scores are determined : the T-score compares the measured BMD values with the average BMD value of young healthy adults of the same sex; the Z-score compares BMD with mean normal values ??for a given age and sex . Bone Homogeneity Index (BHI) is also sometimes monitored.

Fig.3.2.11. Schematic diagram of a DEXA imaging digital X-ray densitometer (on the right, an example of a DEXA device for whole-body imaging).

Modern X-ray densitometric devices use irradiation of the examined area with a diverging ("pyramidal") X-ray beam with subsequent detection of the transmitted radiation by a digital image sensor into the computer's memory - Fig.3.2.11. Here, appropriate absorption calculations are performed between the low (L) and high (H) X-ray energy images to obtain a final skeletal density image that provides both bone mineral content and density and morphological skeletal structure information. The most advanced devices of this type make it possible to perform whole-body image diagnostics of bone tissue, determine the content of muscle mass, adipose tissue, water and minerals in individual parts of the body.
Detectors for X-ray densitometry 
For the detection of transmitted X-rays, either NaI (Tl) or CaWO ₄ scintillation detectors are used , or semiconductor detectors mostly based on CdZnTe ( cadmium-zinc-telluride - CZT), which have a high detection efficiency. In modern imaging densitometers, the detectors are arranged in a 2-dimensional mosaic configuration with high spatial resolution - they form a digital X-ray image sensor , such as a flat panel measuring 20 × 20cm and a matrix of 512 × 512 elements that scans the entire scanned area during a single exposure.
    Bone densitometry plays a key role in the diagnosis of osteoporosis - pathological reductions in mineral and organic bone mass, leading to a weakening of bone strength. Osteoporosis is one of the most common disorders of bone metabolism and is one of the most common causes of fractures in the elderly, especially in postmenopausal women. Early diagnosis of incipient osteoporosis (osteopenia) is important for the use of effective treatment to slow or stop osteoporosis before irreversible disorders in the bone structure.
Note: Non-radiation methods of bone densitometry are also used. Ultrasound densitometry determines bone density based on the attenuation of the sound signal and the speed of its tissue propagation.
................

X-ray mammography
Another important specialized method of X-ray imaging is mammography - imaging of possible inhomogeneities and areas of increased tissue density in a woman's breast, which could indicate a tumor process . In order to achieve the best possible image contrast and resolution of the smallest possible lesions, it is necessary to compress the breast with a compression plate *) and illuminate the tissue thus formed into a layer about 7 cm thick with soft X-rays with an energy of about 20 keV. Low-energy X-ray photons interact with tissue atoms primarily through the photoeffect, which provides a higher absorption contrast between tissues with small differences in density. Due to this low energy, a special x - ray machine is usually used in the mammogrammolybdenum anode and beryllium output window, focus size 0.1-0.3 mm. A molybdenum or rhodium filter is used to filter the X-ray beam, which cuts off photons higher than about 20keV (K-edge Mo) or 23keV (K-edge Rh) - the so-called K-edge effect mentioned above in the passage is used. " Filtration, collimation ".
*) Note: Compression of breast tissue also leads to one minor advantage in terms of radiation protection : compression temporarily restricts blood flow and partially hypoxia tissue cells. This somewhat reduces the radiobiological effect of X-rays, as hypoxic cells are less sensitive to radiation (" oxygen effect"- §5.2" Biological effects of ionizing radiation, part " LQ model ").
    Imaging was performed with a cassette with X-ray film equipped with an image intensifier, or more recently using electronic image capture - a semiconductor flat panel with direct image digitization. A secondary Bucky diaphragm is placed between the imaged tissue and the film or imaging detector to reduce the proportion of scattered radiation, reducing the contrast of the image. The resulting X-ray of the breast is called a mammogram or mastogram . Under suitable circumstances, it is possible to detect a tumor as small as about 4 millimeters. Mammography is suitable not only for the examination of women with symptoms or suspicion of breast cancer, but also for screening - searching for early stages of breast cancer.

Fig.3.2.12. X-ray mammography The breast is inserted between the X-ray tube and the imaging flat panel and compressed with a plastic compression plate.   On the X-ray mammographic image, we can observe normal density without defects (top right) , or lesions of increased density that may indicate a tumor (bottom right) .

The X-ray mammography device can be supplemented by a so-called mammographic stereotaxy device , which captures two images of a given lesion in oblique projections at two given angles (usually ± 15 °). Evaluation of the change in the position of the lesion on these two stereo images allows precise targeting of the displayed structures suspected of the tumor process - their location and marking with a suitable marker (such as mandrel, wire or dye), with the possibility of sampling by biopsy for histological examination.
Alternative mammography methods
In addition to the most commonly used X-ray mammography, there are some other examination methods based on different principles :
¨ Ultrasonic mammography showing or. lesions based on their different densities and elasticities (ultrasonography is briefly discussed in §4.6 . , passage " Ultrasound sonography ").
¨ NMRI mammography - imaging by nuclear magnetic resonance
¨ Radioisotope scintimammography showing increased accumulation of a suitable radiopharmaceutical in resp. tumor tissue (see Chapter 4 " Scintigraphy "); it can be performed as planar, SPECT or PET scintigraphy. A specific method of PEM positron emission tomography is described in §4.3, passage " Positron emission mammography (PEM) ".
¨ Electroimpedance mammographysensing the electrical conductivity (impedance) of mammary gland tissues. A weak electric current is introduced into the tissue by means of electrodes placed on the skin in the vicinity of the examined area, and also by means of electrodes the distribution of electric potentials on the surface is sensed. From these data it is possible to reconstruct the spatial distribution of local tissue impedance - electroimpedance image . A different electrical conductivity is observed in the tumor tissue from the surrounding tissue.

Dental X-ray diagnostics
A separate category of smaller specialized X-ray devices are dental or dental X-rays used in dentistry. There are three types of devices :
¨ Intraoral X-ray is a very simple device: a small X-ray machine of a compact design with a narrow tube is placed on the movable arm (a high voltage source of approx. 50 ¸ 70 kV
is usually encapsulated in its cover ). A small box of X-ray film is placed on the back of the teeth and exposed to X-rays from the front. After calling, the relevant tooth (or several teeth) and its placement in the gums are displayed, including any defects.
¨ Panoramic X-ray OPG ( orthopantomogram ), also called DPR (Dental Panoramatic Radiograph ). The X-ray machine and the X-ray film or imaging flat panel located opposite it rotate during rotation and describe a circular or elliptical trajectory around the patient's head (jaw) so that the focal layer is compensated for compensating for X-ray and film (or imaging detector). it passed through the center of the jaw line along its entire length. This creates a developed panoramic image of the entire jaw. In the simplest case, this is achieved with a single motor, but a better panoramic view is achieved with devices with 2 or 3 motors, which perform rotation in multiple axes with better adaptation to the shape of the jaw. The best focusing of all jaw areas is achieved with multifocalsOPG devices, where a large number of images in different focal layers are captured, with subsequent evaluation.
¨ Dental CT is a reduced version of the classic cone-beam CT (mentioned above) with imaging detectors of about 3 ´ 4 ¸ 15 ´ 15 cm. Sometimes panoramic X-rays are combined with dental CT into one system. Dental CT is used in maxillofacial surgery, dental implants and in the diagnosis of pathological lesions in the area.

Radiation exposure of patients during X-ray examination
Using the current modern X-ray technique, the radiation exposure of patients is relatively low . The absorbed radiation dose D [mGy] during X-ray examination of a certain area of ??the body is basically given by the product of the intensity of X-rays (this is given by the X-ray current [mA]), exposure time [s] and corresponding coefficients:
            D = G. mAs.
Coefficient Git includes a number of factors, such as the efficiency of X-ray production by X-rays, its energy given by the voltage [kV] for X-rays, filtration, distance, tissue absorption coefficients. It is measured using phantoms, most often water-filled "aquariums" (for planar X-rays), or cylinders with a diameter of 16 cm (head) or 32 cm (chest) for CT, equipped with ionization chambers, thermoluminescence or semiconductor detectors. The probability of biological stochastic effects is proportional to this absorbed radiation dose [mGy] and the size of the irradiated area [cm ³ ].
    The planar X-ray diagnostics is quantified by this variable surface dose of DAP ( Dose Area Product ) [mGy.cm ² ], which isproduct of the input dose of X-rays and the size (area S) of the irradiated field: DAP = D. S. The effective dose D _ef [mSv] for the patient, expressing the effects of radiation on the organism as a whole, is then calculated as the product: D _ef = E _DAP . DAP, where the coefficient E _DAP ( regionally normalized effective dose [mSv mGy ^-1 cm ^-2 ]) includes averaged tissue (organ) weighting factors w _T for structures in the irradiated area.
    Specially calibrated radiometers, so-called DAP-meters, are used to measure the radiation dose of patients during planar X-ray imaging.*), measuring product of absorbed dose and irradiated area ( Dose Area Product ). The DAP meter is a thin transmission plane-parallel ionization chamber mounted on the output collimator (aperture) of the X-ray device, the area of ??which covers the entire (maximum) field of X-rays - Fig .
3.2.5 at the top left. The ionization current generated by the passage of X-rays from the X-ray machine toward the patient, after appropriate calibration, indicates the areal dose of DAP that the defined imaged field of the patient's body receives. *) Radiometers of this type are sometimes also called KAP-meters , measuring the product of kerma in the air and the irradiated area ( Kerma Area Product ). For X-rays used in X-ray diagnostics, the kerma and dose values ??are practically identical. As discussed in §5.1 " Effects of radiation on matter. Basic quantities of dosimetry . ", Passage " Exposure, kerma, terma ", the relationship D = K applies between dose and kerma particles that are lost during radiation processes in the material. For diagnostic X-rays, the value of g is only fractions of a percent.
    The product of the kerma and the surface is the integral of the kerma in the air over the beam surface in a plane perpendicular to the central axis of the beam. The value of the product of the kerma and the area is almost independent of the distance from the focus of the X-ray tube (if we neglect the attenuation of the radiation in the air, the backscattered radiation and possibly the X radiation arising outside the focus) .
    For CT imaging, the radiation exposure is quantified using a quantityDLP linear dose ( Dose Length Product ) [mGy.cm], which is the product of the absorbed dose D and the length L irradiated area: D = DLP . L. The effective dose D _ef [mSv] for an X-rayed patient, expressing the stochastic effects of radiation on the organism as a whole, is then calculated as the product:            D _ef = E _DAP . DAP for planar display, or D _ef = E _DLP . DLP for CT imaging, where coefficients E _DAP or E _DLP - regionally normalized effective dose [mSv mGy^-1 cm ^-1 ] - include averaged tissue (organ) weighting factors w _T for structures in the irradiated area (§5.1 "Basic quantities of dosimetry", passage " Radiobiological efficiency of radiation ") .
    How these measured exposure parameters are used to determine radiation doses and their optimization in X-ray examinations is briefly discussed in §5.7 " Radiation exposure in radiation diagnosis and therapy ".

Other imaging diagnostic methods. Hybrid imaging systems.
X-ray diagnostics is the oldest and so far the most important imaging method in medicine. With technical progress, especially in the field of electronics and computer technology, some other alternative imaging methods of medical diagnostics have developed. They are: Ultrasound sonography , Nuclear magnetic resonance , Thermography ; Recently, electroimpedance imaging of tissue has begun to be applied . The whole chapter 4 then describes in detail another important imaging method - Scintigraphy .
    These methods are physically compared in §4.6 "Relationship between scintigraphy and other imaging methods ", where their diagnostic benefits and their complementarity in the algorithm of complex diagnosticsare discussed. In recent years, hybrid imaging systems combining CT X-ray imaging with scintigraphic PET or SPECT imaging, or with nuclear magnetic resonance NMRI, as well as hybrid imaging + irradiation technologies in radiotherapy (§3.6 " Radiotherapy ", part " Modulation of irradiation beams ", passage " Hybrid integration of imaging and irradiation technologies ").

The basic aspects of evaluation and acquisition of diagnostic information from images of the mentioned radiological modalities are given in §4.7 " Visual evaluation and mathematical analysis of diagnostic images " .

------------------------ Small physical-technical interest ---------------------- -

X-ray telescopes
The X-ray diagnostics discussed above is a transmission method based on the passage of X-rays through an object. X-rays are a means of analyzing the structure of an object under investigation. However, there are situations where we primarily need to search for and display the sources of X-rays themselves , their position and distribution in space. And "at a distance", whether small (analytical and examination methods of materials) or large (detection of X-rays in space) - to perform X-ray telescopy .
    X-ray telescopes must have completely different optics than normal visible light telescopes. In the optical telescope, spherical or parabolic lenses and mirrors are used, on which light rays fall at a large angle (almost perpendicular) and refract or reflect so that they converge and intersect near the focus where the image is formed. The lenses are not usable for X-rays at all. Under certain circumstances, reflection on a mirror is applicable, but the beam must strike the reflecting surface of the mirror at a very small angle, almost tangentially. Due to the high energy of the photons and the short wavelength of the X-rays, the X-rays must fall very obliquely, practically "sliding" on the surface, because when incident at larger angles (or even perpendicular) the X-rays photons would penetrate below the mirror surface and interact individually. with electrons and atoms of its material (photoeffect or Compton scattering, see §1.6 " Interaction of gamma and X-rays ") - part would pass, most would be absorbed in it; no display would be created. At a very oblique impact, from the point of view of the photon, the number of free electrons in the metal surface per unit length will increase geometrically (the electron density will increase effectively), so that the X-ray photon will interact collectivelywith a large number of free electrons, similar to the reflection of a light wave from a metal surface: an electromagnetic wave-photon is reflected from the metal surface at the same angle as the angle of incidence , according to the laws of electrodynamics . Or, from the point of view of the reflecting surface, the wavelength of the incoming radiation (its projection) is effectively extended, which will therefore behave similarly to light. It's a bit like throwing a stone very obliquely, almost parallel to the water surface and he bounces, or. it bounces on the surface several times. However, in practice this mechanism only works for soft X-rays , up to about 30keV.

^{Fig.3.2.13. Principle of a mirror X-ray telescope}

X-ray optics are therefore based on an almost tangential impact , where the X-ray beam impinges almost parallel to the surface, only then is it reflected. Such reflective surfaces must be very precise and smooth, their "roughness" must not exceed a thousandth of a mm. The X-ray telescope consists of one or more very precisely shaped coaxial metal surfaces, inclined at a very small angle with respect to the optical axis of the system (Fig.3.2.13). This reflecting surface may have a conical shape, but the combination of paraboloid and hyperboloid provides optimal optical properties. The reflecting surfaces are arranged almost parallel to the incident rays, which are therefore reflected at a very small angle - first from the paraboloid and then from the hyperboloid - to the focal plane, where they form an image of the X-ray source from which the X-rays came. . Here the radiation is detected by detectors. The more advanced types of X-ray telescopes are multi-mirror , consisting of a number of very precisely shaped, carefully adjusted and interposed coaxial parabolic and hyperbolic mirrors. The central part of the system is blocked by an X-ray absorbing material.
    X-ray telephoto lenses of this kind were constructed in the 1960s and 1990s mainly by R. Giaccomi and his collaborators. They constantly improved them and installed them on space satellites: UHURU in 1970, HEAO-2, Chandra in 1999. With these instruments was revealed many X-ray sources in space - X-ray binaries, supernova remnants, neutron stars, galaxies active nuclei, the cloud of ionized gas in galaxy clusters (the X-radiation from space and see §1.6 its origin, the " Cosmic ray " passage "Cosmic X and gamma rays") . Current X-ray telescopes achieve very good angular resolution (<0.5 arcseconds), spectral (energy) resolution (1eV), as well as high luminosity and sensitivity to X-rays and higher energies. They are the basic tools of the so-calledX-ray astronomy .
    In the area of even shorter wavelengths, ie higher photon energies, X-ray telescopes are followed by the issue of gamma-telescopes , briefly discussed at the end of §4.2, section " High-energy gamma cameras ").

3.3. Radiation measurement of mechanical properties of materials
The properties of the interaction of different types of ionizing radiation with matter provide a number of possibilities for non-contact non-destructive measurement of some mechanical and structural properties of various objects and materials. Most of these methods work in the experimental setup schematically shown in Fig.3.1.1a, b in §3.1. The analyte or sample is irradiated with a suitable type of radiation, the detector measuring the effect of this radiation on the analyte.

Radiation measurement of thickness and density
If we irradiate a material with a given value of the linear attenuation coefficient m , the absorption and attenuation of radiation is exponentially dependent on the thickness of the material - see the section " Absorption of radiation in substances " in §1.6 "Ionizing radiation". By measuring the radiation absorption, the thickness of the material and its changes can be determined without contact (in the basic arrangement according to Fig.2.8.1 on the left). For thin light materials such as paper or plastic foils, beta radiation is suitable , the source can be radionuclides ⁹⁰ Sr + ⁹⁰ Y (harder radiation b E _b= 0.546 + 2.27MeV, mass half-thickness of absorption d _1/2 = 90mg / cm ² , suitable for thicker layers) , ⁸⁵ Kr (E _b = 670keV, d _1/2 = 23mg / cm ² ) , ¹⁴⁷ Pm (E _b = 224keV, d _1/2 = 5mg / cm ² ) . To measure denser materials (such as metals), g- radiation is used , emitted by radionuclides ²⁴¹ Am (60keV), ¹³⁷ Cs (662keV), ⁶⁰Co (1173 + 1332keV). With these methods, it is possible to measure (scan) the relevant objects, or even continuously monitor the thickness of the produced foil or rolled metallurgical material on the conveyor belt.
    The attenuation of radiation as it passes through the substance is also significantly dependent on the density of the monitored material. With a known (constant) material thickness, we can monitor the density of the material and its changes based on the attenuation of the transmitted radiation beam. Densitometers of this type are used, for example, in monitoring the transport of substances by pipeline (in the chemical or food industry) or belt conveyors (coal treatment plants, dosing of components in metallurgy, etc.).
Note: If the measured sample is accessible from one side only, it is sometimes used to measure the thickness and density of the scattering method.: the object is irradiated with a beam of radiation and the intensity of Compton backscattered radiation (Fig.2.8.1 in the middle) is monitored, which depends on the thickness and density of the material. This is the case with pipe walls, boilers and closed vessels, or in boreholes (logging measurements). However, the accuracy and sensitivity of these scattering methods is lower than for transmission methods.

Radiation level meters
meters Radionuclide level meters determine the height of a liquid column based on the attenuation of the radiation beam g by the liquid, depending on whether the radiation passes through liquid or air. In addition to liquids, bulk materials can also be monitored in this way. This non-contact method is important where other methods cannot be easily used - for example in overpressure and underpressure vessels, or for liquids aggressive or heated to high temperatures. The most commonly used g- emitters with radionuclides ¹³⁷ Cs (662keV) and ⁶⁰ Co (1173 + 1332keV), or ²⁴¹ Am (60keV).
    The geometric arrangement of the radiator and detector is most often horizontal, where the radiator and the detector are placed on the sides of the tank opposite each other and detect the level (in the simplest case, one radiator and one detector are used, whose response after amplification switches the relay contacts when the level reaches the measured point) . In a vertical arrangement, the source and detector are below and above the tank, so that the attenuation of the radiation as it passes through the liquid column is exponentially dependent on the level in the tank; the level can be monitored continuously.

Neutron measurement of hunidity
This method is based on the elastic scattering of fast neutrons on hydrogen nuclei (contained in water), which of all elements most effectively scatter and decelerate neutrons. The humidity meter consists of a source of fast neutrons (usually ²⁴¹ Am in a mixture with beryllium, activity of about one hundred MBq to units of GBq) and a detector of slow neutrons (see §2.6). Either a transmission arrangement can be used , where the attenuation of the flux of neutrons from the source due to their scattering on the hydrogen nuclei is measured , or reflective , where the increase in the flux of slowed neutrons due to their scattering in the surrounding material containing hydrogen nuclei is measured.
    The neutron method of measuring the moisture content of materials is used in many industries, eg in the chemical industry, construction, agriculture, mining. It is most often used to measure the moisture content of bulk materials such as soil, sand, mortar mixtures, ores, coal and coke, grain, etc.
Note: The response of neutron flux is given by the total volume humidity . If it is necessary to determine the mass humidity , sometimes combined neutron + gamma probes containing a neutron source and a g- radiation source (eg ¹³⁷ Cs) and a neutron detector and a g detector are used (it is often combined into one compact probe). From the response to radiation git is possible to determine the density of a material, from the neutron response its moisture; the conversion of bulk moisture to mass moisture can then be realized electronically in the evaluation unit of the device.

Radiation defectoscopy
Another method, based on differences in the absorption of penetrating radiation in substances, is radiation defectoscopy . During casting, cooling, welding, machining and operation of products and parts of machines and equipment, inhomogeneities, cavities, cracks and similar internal defects can occur , which impair the mechanical properties of the part and can lead to machine failure. Defectoscopy in general is a method of non-destructive examination of structure ("defects") in the macroscopic consistency of a material.
    Radiation defectoscopy allows non-destructive analysis of inhomogeneities to detect possible cracks and other anomalies in construction materials and finished products. The basic scheme of defectoscopic measurement is similar to the above-described X-ray diagnostics in medicine. The analyzed object is irradiated with a collimated beam of penetrating radiation X or g , while the transmitted radiation is displayed on a photographic film - radiography , or is displayed on a fluorescent screen or electronic detector to a computer - radioscopy . The absorption of ionizing radiation depends on the thickness and density of the material (see the exponential relationship in the section " Absorption of radiation in substances " in §1.6), so that the weakened areas are reflected in greater blackening of the film.
    Any inhomogeneity or crack will appear on the film after development as a local defect in an otherwise homogeneous blackening of the emulsion. Films and developers are used, ensuring the highest possible steepness of the blackening curve , so that even small inhomogeneities of transmitted radiation are displayed in sufficient contrast. The blackening of the film is usually evaluated visually using special transmission lamps, or they can be evaluated photometrically. Now the films are gradually being discontinued - the transmitted radiation is detected by a sensitive electronic detector . The detector, a digital semiconductor flat panel detector ( flat panel ), detects the intensity of gamma or X-ray radiation that passes through the material and the occurrence of a defect (cracks, cavities, etc.) is reflected in a change in the intensity of the measured radiation at a given location.
  For defectoscopy of steel objects, either X-rays with an energy of about 60-400keV from technical X-rays tube or g- rays from suitable radionuclides are used - iridium ¹⁹² Ir , selenium ⁷⁵ Se , cesium ¹³⁷ Cs , cobalt ⁶⁰ Co , occasionally also hard bremsstrahlung g with energy up to 10MeV produced by a linear or circular electron accelerator (braking of electrons on a target). Hard gamma radiation or braking radiation must be used especially when irradiating metals (steel) with a thickness greater than 100 mm, where ordinary X-rays are no longer sufficient. For radiography of thinner layers, on the other hand, softer photon radiation is more suitable, which provides a higher contrast of the displayed small defects(Of the radionuclides, the aforementioned Ir-192 or Se-75 is suitable) .
    Defectoscopy is used especially where high demands are placed on the quality of materials and components. These are, for example, gas pipelines, turbine blades, reactor pressure vessels, bridge structures, etc.
X-ray microscopy, micro-CT
So -called micro-X-rays tubes are used for structural analysis of small objects (such as electronic components or small castings). The special X-ray machine has a very small impact focus (only a few micrometers), so the X-ray beam emanates almost from a point source and provides high sharpness and image resolution. The measured sample is placed very close to the X-ray and the film or imaging detector at a greater distance - there is a projection magnification of the image . For this purpose, X-ray lamps with a thin front so-called transmission anode are sometimes used (see §3.2, section " X -rays", passage "Special types of X-ray tubes") , which allows to maximally bring the displayed object to the focus on the anode and thus achieve high magnification at a small distance between the illuminated object and the imaging detector. For X-ray microscopy ( XRM)) mainly soft X-rays of approx. 20 ¸ 60keV are used. Low-energy photons of X-rays interact with the atoms of the investigated substance mainly by the photoeffect, which provides a higher absorption contrast between areas with small differences in density. In large special laboratories, very soft X-rays (approx. 2 ¸ 10keV - around the K- or L-edge of the absorption spectrum of the examined material, where the absorption and imaging contrast is greatest) from the synchrotron undulator are used for X-ray microscopy (see §1.5, section " Accelerated particle accelerators ", section "Accelerators as synchrotron radiation generators") , with or. using a crystal monochromator and a Fresnel zone plate, acting as a contact lens of X-ray optics. Either scan mode or display using special pixel detectors is used . These are very demanding laboratory methods!

X-ray microscopy with a special microfocus X-ray tube with a transmission anode.

CT X-ray tomography or micro-tomography ( m CT)   is also used for detailed 3D analysis of small objects , the principle of which is analogous to the above-described medical X-ray tomography (§3.2, section " X-ray tomography - CT ") . The main difference is that the X-ray machine and the detection system do not rotate during the measurement, but the displayed object rotates between the static X-ray machine and the imaging detector. The transmitted X-rays, measured by an imaging detector for a number of different angles of the rotating sample, are reconstructed into cross-sectional images, the set of which forms a 3-D image of the analyzed object.

Safety inspection of materials
The principle of radiation measurement of mechanical properties (density) of materials is also based on X-ray inspection of luggage , used in recent years at airports. Small X-ray machines - an X-ray machine and an opposite electronic imaging detector - are installed at the baggage counter for air traffic, between which checked baggage passes. The resulting absorption image is immediately projected on the display, sometimes with a "pseudo" color display (artificial assignment of colors to grayscale), in order to recognize mainly metal objects (such as weapons).

X-ray diffraction analysis of the structure of the crystal lattice
Impinges when X-rays to a substance having crystal ou structure rou , there is a diffraction portion of X-rays , at which the radiation reflected from the regular crystal lattice structure - X-rays elastically scattered at electrons measured crystal. Subsequently, this X-ray may be interfered with . The diffraction interference picture then encodes information about the internal structure of the crystal.
    At the incidence of monochromatic X - rays with a wavelength of l » 0.1 nm ( comparable to the distance between the ions forming the crystal lattice ), the rays may be amplified in one direction, weakened or disturbed in others . X-rays are amplified and form an interference maximum if the so-called Bragg condition is met, so that the path angle of two rays is an integer multiple of the wavelength of the radiation: n. L = 2.d.sin J , where J is the angle formed by the incident beam with the crystal plane, d is the distance between two adjacent crystal planes (lattice constant) , l is the wavelength of the X-ray radiation used and n = 1,2,3, ... is integer . In this situation, the intensity of the scattered waves adds up . For a given crystal having a lattice constant d is thus interfering peaks at the diffraction d planted only at certain values of L and J . Usually, 1st order angular spectra (n = 1) are scanned, where the maximum is most pronounced, only to distinguish some details, higher order spectra are analyzed (low intensity - significant prolongation of exposure time) .

Fig.3.3.2. Principle arrangement of X-ray diffraction analysis of crystal lattices

  Apparatus for measuring the diffraction called. Diffractometer is formed goniometer , whose center is stored analyte and on whose one arm is a source of X-radiation and the other arm a detector measuring the intensity I _X -ray radiation. By turning the goniometer, the angles J are measured , for which the maximum intensity I _{X of the} "reflected" X-ray, i.e. the interference maximum, is detected in the reflection mode . The measurement in the transmission mode is rarely used , when the diffraction of X-radiation passed through the sample is measured. Possibly. display of the diffraction patternon photographic film or electronic imaging detector. The X-ray continuous spectrum monochromator is included either in the primary beam or in the secondary diffraction radiation path. For a detailed analysis of the structure of single crystals, the angles of the X-ray J ₁ and the detector J ₁ are measured independently and another goniometer is included, enabling the sample to rotate even in the perpendicular direction ( Bragg-Brentan diffractometer ). X- ray microfocus is used in X-ray microdiffraction (its construction was described above in the section " Special types of X-ray tubes " and the use in the previous paragraph " X-ray microscopy; micro-CT ") ; in the most demanding applications isynchrotron X-rays (§1.5, section " Synchrotron radiation generators ") .
    X-ray diffractometry is used in many areas of materials research, especially for the analysis of the crystal structure of substances - both single crystals ( single crystal X-ray structural analysis ) and polycrystalline and powder materials ( powder X-ray structural analysis ). Also in the non-destructive analysis of archaeological and artistic objects.
Note: It can also be used to decompose continuous (polychromatic) X-rays and obtain a monochromatic component.
...............

Positron annihilation spectrometry
Positron annihilation spectrometry is used to analyze local electron densities and configurations in substances. It is based on spectrometric measurements of the positron lifetime in substance ( PLS - Positron Lifetime Spectroscopy ) . If we irradiate the analyzed material with positrons, fast positrons slow down in the substance in the path of a few micrometers (in a time of about 10 picoseconds) and under normal circumstances they can (via an unstable positronium) annihilate with electrons. However, they can be retained in places of structural irregularities in the crystal lattice (pores) and annihilate with a delay with electrons from the surroundings. In order to determine the lifetime of positrons, we first need to detect the moment of formation (radiation) of the positron. This is possible when the radioactive source of positrons synchronously emits gamma radiation from the excited level of the daughter nucleus.
    The investigated material is thus locally irradiated with a mixed b ⁺ - g emitter (most often ²² Na ), while the lifetime of positrons is determined by measuring the delayed coincidences between the detection of the photon of radiation g from the radiating radionuclide (u ²² Na is g 1274 keV) and detecting the g 511 keV annihilation photon .
    In the case of the most common use of a b ⁺ - g emitter Na²² the detection radiometric apparatus consists of two gamma-detectors (scintillation or semiconductor):
1. A detector set to a 1274keV photopeak of gamma daughter nuclide deexcitation radiation ²² No. This is the " start " impulse of the time coincidence analysis, indicating the moment of positron formation .
2. Detector set to 511keV of annihilation radiation generated by e ^- e ⁺ positron annihilation. This is the " final "impulse of time coincidence analysis, determining the moment of positron extinction .
    In solids maters without structural defects the lifetime of positrons is about 0.25ns, in positrons annihilating in defects it is extended to about 0.75ns. With this method it is possible to observe defects in material structure of about 0.1 to 1 nm - dislocations, vacancies, clusters of vacancies, clusters, or precipitates.It is used to monitor the technology of preparation of various materials (plastics, metals, conductors, insulators, semiconductors) and also to monitor the impact of the environment and technologies on materials ( fatigue and "aging" of materials, thermal and radiation effects, etc.) .

3.4. Radiation analytical methods of materials
The methods of atomic and nuclear physics, as well as the properties of different types of radiation, provide important tools for the analysis of the material and elemental composition of various objects. Most of these methods work in the experimental arrangement ideologically shown already in the introductory Fig.3.1.1a, bv §3.1. The analyzed object or sample is irradiated with a suitable type of primary radiation , the interaction of which with atoms or nuclei creates secondary radiation , which "brings out" information about the composition of the material. This radiation is detected and analyzes. From the large number of different atomic, nuclear and radiation analytical methods, we will present only a certain selection of the typical and more frequently used ones, with an emphasis on the physical nature, without excessive technical details.

X-ray fluorescence analysis
This method of non-destructive determination of the chemical (elemental) composition of substances is based on the measurement of the secondary fluorescence characteristic X-rays induced by the primary irradiation of the examined sample. The measured sample is most often irradiated with photon radiation - either X-rays from an X-ray lamp or gamma radiation from a suitable radionuclide - Fig.3.4.1 (irradiation with charged particles is mentioned at the end of this passage) . The interaction of this photon radiation with the atoms of the examined sample results in a photoeffect (see the passage " Interaction of gamma radiation " in §1.6 "Ionizing radiation") mostly on the K shell (if the radiation energy is higher than the binding energy of the electron on this shell), after which when the electrons jump from the higher shell (L) to the released place, a characteristic X-radiation (K series) is emitted, whose energy is unambiguously determined by the proton number Z of the atom. If the shell on the photoelectric L , then Hopping of electrons husk M is emitted characteristic X-ray series L .
    The energies (spectral lines K_{a b} ) of fluorescent X-rays are characteristic for each element, the amount of emitted photons of characteristic radiation is directly proportional to the number of atoms of a given species, thus a measure of the concentration of a given element. By spectrometric analysis the energy (wavelength) of the resulting fluorescent radiation can be used to determine which elements are present in the sample under investigation, and the amount (concentration) of these elements in the sample can be determined according to the intensity of the individual fluorescence peaks.
    The method of exciting characteristic X-rays by primary gamma rays is sometimes referred to as XRF ( gamma-induced X-ray Fluorescent Emission ).

Fig.3.4.1. Typical arrangement of radiation source, analyte and detector in X-ray fluorescence analysis. At the top right is the detailed structure of the peaks K a, b of the characteristic X-ray, measured by a semiconductor Ge(Li) detector.

The energy of the primary excitation radiation g or X is most suitable only slightly higher than the binding electrons on the shell K (or L) in the atoms of the analyzed elements; then the highest effective cross section is for the photo effect. Therefore, different irradiation sources are used for lighter, medium and heavy elements. Thus, in addition to the X-ray lamp, radionuclides emitting soft X-rays such as iron ⁵⁵ Fe (X Mn L-series 5.9-6.5keV) , curium ²⁴⁴ Cm (X Pu L-series 12 ) are used for the irradiation of the examined samples for the analysis of light elements. -23keV) , for medium-heavy elements americium ²⁴¹ Am ( g 60keV) , for analysis of heavy elements such as gold, tungsten, lead, uranium, etc., then cobalt⁵⁷ Co ( g 122 + 136keV) , cesium ¹³⁷ Cs ( g 662keV) , cer ¹⁴⁴ Ce ( g 140keV) .
    Scintillation detectors are used to detect characteristic X-rays for simpler and indicative measurements (such as geological survey and ore prospecting, metal content control in metallurgy, etc.), but a high-resolution semiconductor detector must be used for more accurate and complex laboratory analysis, and multichannel analyzer . For quantitative analysis, a correction for interfering Compton scattered radiation g must be madeand, of course, careful calibration of the device.
   Characteristic X-rays have four very close energy lines (related to the fine structure of electron levels K and L), which are referred to as K _{a 1} , K _{a 2} , K _{b 1} , K _{b 2} - Fig.3.4.1 top right. E.g. for lead these energies are 72.8,74.97, 84.8,87.3 keV, for gold 66.99,68.81, 77.9,80.1 keV, for iron the energy of X-rays is only 6.4 keV, for aluminum 1.5keV (for these low energies it is practically no longer possible distinguish lines K _a and K _b ). Thus, for light elements, the X-ray energy is very low and difficult to detect. X-ray fluor. analysis is therefore particularly suitable for determining content heavier elements .
   To excite characteristic X-rays, primary irradiation with charged particles that ionize the atoms of the substance is sometimes used , followed by deexcitation and emission of X-rays. The method of particle-induced X-ray emission is called PIXE ( Particle-Induced X-ray Emission ). Usually, protons with an energy of about 2-4 MeV are irradiated, the surface layer of the sample is analyzed to a depth of about 5 m .
   X-ray fluorescence analysis has the great advantage of being fast, accurate and reproducible, does not require any chemical processing of samples in all states. The examined material is not damaged in any way and no artificial radioactivity is generated. It is possible to examine entire objects , without the need for sampling - this is a non-destructive method . It is therefore suitable, among other things, for the analysis of the composition of art objects , which can help their temporal or authorial classification, finding out the origin, as well as verifying their authenticity.

Activation analysis
This nuclear-analytical method is based on the irradiation of a test sample with such radiation (type and energy) that enters the nuclei of the investigated atoms and causes nuclear reactions there . During these reactions, radiation (especially gamma) is emitted, but mainly unstable isotopes are formed from originally stable nuclei - radionuclides , which subsequently decay by radioactive transformation a or b with subsequent emission of photons g . Either the secondary radiation emitted during the nuclear reaction itself is measured, but above all the g- spectrum is measured emitted radionuclides caused by nuclear reactions due to primary irradiation. The analysis of this spectrum determines the elemental composition of the sample (qualitative and, if necessary, quantitative) .
    Neutron activation analysis NAA (also called induced or instrumental neutron activation analysis INAA , see below) is a highly sensitive method of analysis of chemical composition of substances, based on neutron capture (reaction n, g ) in the nuclei of the test substance, thus forming radioactive nuclei (see §1.3 "Nuclear reactions"): ^N A _Z + n ® ^{N + 1} B * _Z ; B * ® B + g _P ; ^{N + 1} B _Z ® ^{N + 1} C * _{Z + 1} + e ^- ( b ) + n ; C * ® C + g _D . During the reactions, two types of gamma radiation are emitted: immediately after neutron capture, it is g _P radiation , followed by radioactive decay of activated nuclei, g _D radiation is emitted - lower part Fig.3.4.2. Irradiation of the examined sample with neutrons thus results in the formation of radionuclides - the " activation " of the sample, followed by spectrometric analysis of energies and radiation intensities (especially g ) emitted from the activated sample, the relevant radionuclide can be determined and the corresponding (inactive) starting nuclide contained in the sample, the activation of which radionuclide was created by "tracing" (Fig.3.4.2). Using a suitable calibration, its content (concentration) in the examined material can also be determined .

Fig.3.4.2. Typical procedure for neutron activation analysis.

Neutron irradiation of the analyzed samples is performed either in irradiation chambers in a nuclear reactor as shown in the figure (nuclear reactor is a powerful source of neutrons, see §1.3, section " Fission of atomic nuclei ") , or using neutrons from special accelerators, so-called neutron generators ( §1.5, part "Charged particle accelerators", passage " Neutron generators ") . In the laboratory and in the field is also used radionuclide neutron sources , a blend of the alpha-emitter with a light element (e.g. a -radionuklidu ²⁴¹ Am in admixture with beryllium reactions occur and, n), or a heavy transuranic radionuclide (most often californium 252), during the spontaneous fission of which neutrons are released (§1.3, " Transurans ") . For neutron activation analysis, mainly slow neutrons with energies of about 0.001-0.55 eV are used , which have a high effective cross-section of capture by many nuclei. From neutron sources, which usually provide fast neutrons with energies of the order of MeV, the neutron beam is first led to the moderator and irradiated only by slowed neutrons.
    For complex NAA, the detection of gamma radiation from neutron-irradiated samples is usually performed by semiconductor g- spectrometers with high energy resolution (§2.5 " Semiconductor detectors ") in order to identify the exact energies of gamma radiation and to distinguish peaks often in close proximity. For some simpler applications, where it is enough to measure the representation of one or a few elements, scintillation detectors can be used (which do not have such good energy resolution, but have higher detection efficiency - §2.4 " Scintillation detection and gamma-ray spectrometry "). If the measurement of the activated sample is extended by the simultaneous - coincidence - detection of two or more quanta of emitted gamma radiation by means of two spectrometric detectors, the method is referred to as coincidence activation analysis CINAA ( Coincident INAA). The method is suitable when the activation results in radionuclides with a cascade deexcitation emitting a pair of photon quanta (such as ⁶⁰ Co). Coincidence measurement then sharply reduces the background of interfering impulses. Detection can optionally be combined with position-sensitive detectors (such as semiconductor pixel detectors) that register soft g- radiation or charged particles, especially electrons b ^- , which are emitted by activated nuclei in coincidence with photons g . In this way, the spatial distribution of the analyzed element in the sample can be displayed .
    In terms of treatment of measured samples, two methods of activation analysis are used :
¨ Instrumental INAA activation analysis, where the irradiated sample is measured directly, without chemical treatment, on a g- spectrometer. This is the simplest and most common way to implement NAA. In the respective device, the neutron source and the g- spectrometer are sometimes integrated in one compact device, which can be used not only in the laboratory, but also in the field. Such measurements can also be performed in a non-destructive way: We irradiate the analyzed object or its part with a neutron source, measure the induced radiation g , after which we can return the object to its original use (unless it is activated too strongly by long-term radionuclides) .
¨ Radiochemical RNAA activation analysis, in which the sample is first subjected to chemical separation after irradiation - either to remove interfering radionuclides (which could overheat the analyzed radionuclides or to interfere with them), or to increase the concentration of required radioisotopes. This method is used less often for considerable labor and laboratory complexity.
    In terms of the time relationship between irradiation and measurement, neutron activation analysis is divided into two categories :
l Subsequent - delayed gamma-neutron activation analysis DGNAA ( Dellayed Gamma-ray Neutron Activation Analysis ), where gamma radiation measurements from the sample are performed after neutron irradiation as in Fig.3.4.2 in the middle). "Subsequent" (delayed) radiation g is measured here _D arising from b -radioactivity of activated nuclei ^{N + 1} B _Z ® ^{N + 1} C * _{Z + 1} + e ^- ( b ) + n by deexcitation of excited levels of the daughter nucleus: C * ® C + g . This is the most commonly used method suitable where neutron activation produces radionuclides with a longer half-life (minutes and longer).
l Immediate ( prompt *) gamma-neutron activation analysis PGNAA ( Prompt Gamma-ray Neutron Activation Analysis ), when the measurement of emitted g
-radiation is performed during neutron irradiation (Fig.3.4.2 on the right). Radiation g of two types (origins) is measured from the irradiated sample with a gamma spectrometer : 1. Immediate photons g _P , usually emitted very quickly after neutron capture from excited levels of activated nuclei B * ® B + g . 2. Radiation g _D arising subsequently from b -radioactivity of activated nuclei ^{N + 1} B _Z ® ^{N + 1} C * _{Z + 1} + e ^- ( b ) + n by deexcitation of excited levels of the daughter nucleus: C * ® C + g . This method is suitable when neutron activation produces short-term radionuclides (which would usually decay during the time between irradiation and sample measurement), or stable nuclides, or radionuclides with pure b- decay or a small proportion of g- radiation (then immediate photons g _P generated after neutron radiation capture). The NAA prompt automatically falls into the category of instrumental activation analysis mentioned above .
*) The method of neutron stimulated gamma emission can also be included in this category in a sense , when the sample is irradiated with fast neutrons , the inelastic scattering of which leads toexcitation of nuclei in the analyzed sample. During subsequent deexcitation, g- radiation of characteristic energies for individual nuclides is emitted . The presence and concentration of the respective elements and their isotopes can be determined by spectroscopic detection of this g- radiation, performed during neutron irradiation. This method is also experimentally tested for the purpose of in vivo gamma imaging in medicine (see §4.3, passage "Neutron- stimulated emission computed tomography NSECT ").
    Neutron activation analysis can achieve extremely high sensitivity (it allows to detect even 10 ^-12 g of element in 1 g of sample), so it is suitable for detecting trace amounts substances, eg trace element content in plant and animal tissues, water pollution, purity of semiconductor materials, etc.
Note: For special purposes of biological research, in vivo neutron activation analysis is sometimes used : the relevant part of the organism is irradiated with neutrons (from reactor or neutron generator) followed by a gamma plot of the distribution of induced beta radioactivity (accompanied by gamma), mapping the distribution of the test substance in tissues and organs.
    In addition to neutron activation, proton and gamma-activation analysis are also rarely used , in which protons accelerated on an accelerator , such as a cyclotron, are used to activate the nuclei of the sample .(causes reactions of proton capture [p, g ], or reactions of type [p, n], [p, d], [p, a ]) , or high-energy gamma radiation (causes photonuclear reactions [ g , n] , [ g , p], at higher energies more particles [ g , 2n], [ g , d], [ g , 2p], [ g, a ]) can be ejected from the nucleus , arising as bremsstrahlung by electrons accelerated in betatron, microtron or linear accelerator.

Mössbauer spectroscopy
Mössbauer spectroscopy is a non-destructive analytical method based on the so-called Mössbauer effect of resonant nuclear absorption of g radiation - see §1.6, section " Interaction of gamma radiation ". The sample is irradiated with monochromatic radiation g and the detector measures the intensity of transmitted or "reflected" (resonantly scattered) radiation as a function of subtle changes in radiation energy g , which varies in a narrow range due to Doppler effect by precisely controlled mechanical movement of the source relative to the sample by a linear motor. Radiation git must have an energy exactly corresponding to the excited level of the core of the sample under examination. The Doppler effect compensates for the energy loss of the reflected nuclei, resonant absorption of photons g , accompanied by a maximum of absorption and subsequently emission of a photon of the same energy.
    This method is applicable to substances containing elements which form as daughter nuclei of suitable radioisotopes and have excited levels emitting radiation g ; the samples are irradiated with radiation g from such a radioisotope. The fine position of the absorption maxima depends on the properties of the chemical bond in which the atoms containing the analyzed nuclei participate, on the properties of the crystal lattice, as well as on the internal magnetic and electric fields in the crystals. By analyzing the fine structure of the Mössbauer spectrum (which is the dependence of the absorption of g on the feed rate of the source relative to the sample), some internal chemical and physical properties of the investigated material can be determined .
   The method is suitable for ⁵⁷ Fe, ⁵⁷ Co, ¹²⁹ In, ¹¹⁹ Sn, ¹²¹ Sb *). It is mainly used on materials containing iron ⁵⁷ Fe. It allows the analysis of the distribution of iron in the material in various crystallographic positions, its degree of oxidation, analysis of ferromagnetic materials, alloys, minerals, etc. For analytical purposes, the samples are made into a thin film or powder (weighing several grams).
*) The number of suitable elements (nuclei having a suitable radionuclide emitting g radiation from a suitable excited level of a stable daughter nucleus) suitable for this analysis is very limited , so the significance of Mössbauer spectroscopy is not comparable to such methods as activation analysis, X-ray fluorescence analysis or defectoscopy .
   In the Mössbauer spectrometry of iron, the radionuclide ⁵⁷ is used as the radiation source gCo, which decays to an excited ⁵⁷ Fe nucleus with a half-life of 270 days by electron capture . This nucleus emits 692keV (0.14%), 136keV (11%), 122keV (87%) and 14.4keV (9%) g radiation when deexcited. It is the radiation g of the partial transition from the excited level with an energy of 14.4 kV that is suitable for excitation of resonant nuclear absorption due to its low energy. Due to the high Debye temperature Fe (360 ° K), the Mössbauer effect occurs even at normal laboratory temperatures, while the Doppler frequency shift required to compensate for the reflection of the ⁵⁷ Fe
core is achieved by mechanical displacement of the source at speeds of only the order of 1 mm / s.
    Note: High sensitivity Mössbauer effect of resonant nuclear absorption g -radiation 14.4keV⁵⁷ Fe was used in 1960 by R.V.Pound and G.A.Rebka to measure the gravitational frequency shift in the Earth's gravitational field, which was an important test of Einstein's general theory of relativity as a physics of gravity and spacetime - see §2.4 " Physical laws in curved spacetime " in the book " Gravity, black holes and space - time physics ".

Mass spectrometers and separators
Mass spectrometers and separators, used in physical chemistry and radiochemistry, work in a similar arrangement as the magnetic spectrometer of charged particles according to Fig.2.6.1 on the left - see §2.6, section " Magnetic spectrometers ". The analyte is ionized in the ionization chamber, the formed cations of charge e are accelerated by an electric field and ions with a constant velocity v are selected in a velocity filter (consisting of, for example, a crossed electric and magnetic field) . These then fly through the input slit into the magnetic field of intensity (induction) B , in which they describe a circle with radius R = (v / eB) .m, proportional to the mass m. Ions of different weights describe different paths and thus fall on different places of the base - the device thus separates ions of different weights (given the weight of the core). By changing the magnetic field, ions of corresponding masses are gradually focused into the detector - a mass spectrum is created . A suitable target is installed in the mass separator instead of the detector, on which the incident ions of the selected mass are absorbed.
    Magnetic mass spectrometry is a demanding method for the most accurate analysis of the representation of elements and their individual isotopes in the analyzed substances. Magnetic mass separation makes it possible to isolate completely pure samples of a precisely defined isotopic composition, but only in very small quantities.

Gas ionization analyzers
As ionizing radiation ( a or b ) passes through a gaseous medium, absorption and ionization depend on the density and composition of the gas. The flow ionization chamber with a built-in emitter a or b can thus serve as an analyzer for checking the composition of the gases.
Fire detectors
The ionization fire detector consists of two electrodes with an air gap. Radiation and from the applied layer of radionuclide (most often ²⁴¹
Am, approx. 30 kBq) generates an ionization current between the electrodes. In the presence of smoke between the electrodes, the absorption of the environment changes and thus the ionization current changes, which is registered by the electronic circuits of the fire alarm system.
Radiative electron capture detector - ECD
To detect compounds with high electron affinity (such as the Freons, chlorinated pesticides and other halogenated compounds ) may be a radiant electron capture detector (ECD - Electron Detector Capure). It consists of a cylindrical ionization chamber filled with an inert gas (eg argon), one electrode (cathode) of which is provided with a layer of a low-energy radiator b , usually ⁶³
Ni (activity approx. 300MBq). The emitted radiation b creates an ionization of the gas atoms, a certain ionization current flows through the chamber. When a gas containing high electron affinity atoms enters the chamber, these atoms absorb the electrons in the ionized gas and the ionization current through the chamber decreases , which is electronically registered. Such chambers are often used as a terminal detector in gas chromatography columns .

Nuclear magnetic resonance - analytical and imaging method
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a very complex physical-electronic method, based on the behavior of magnetic moments of atomic nuclei under the action of an alternating radio frequency signal in a strong permanent magnetic field. This originally analytical method was later improved and developed as an important imaging method .
Note: We have included nuclear magnetic resonance among nuclear and radiation methods, even though it does not contain any ionizing radiation. However, it is a method based on the knowledge of nuclear physics - the properties of atomic nuclei. A physical phenomenon called nuclear magnetic resonance - NMR, was investigated in the 1940s (F. Bloch, E.M.Purcell) and was initially used in chemistry as sample NMR spectrometry . In the 1970s and 1980s, NMR imaging methods also began to develop (pioneers were P. Lauterbuer, P. Manfield, A. Maudsley, R. Damadian, 1977) - see below.
    We will try to briefly outline the principles and methodology of NMR. However, due to the considerable principal and technical complexity of NMR (only scintigraphy can partially compete with it), we must observe the maximum brevity ...
Physical principle of NMR
Phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance it can generally occur during the interactions of atomic nuclei with an external electromagnetic field. Each nucleon (proton and neutron) has its own "mechanical" momentum - spin (nucleons belong to fermions with spin 1/2, see §1.5 " Elementary particles "). According to the laws of electrodynamics, this rotational momentum of nucleons creates - induces - its own elementary magnetic moment m _p = 1.41.10 ^-27 J / T, equal to 2.79 times the so-called Bohr nuclear magneton *) - it is discussed in more detail in §1.1, passage " Quantum momentum, spin, magnetic moment ", paragraph " Magnetic moment ". Due to the spins of their nucleons, atomic nuclei therefore generate a very weak magnetic field - they have a certain magnetic moment m . However, only atomic nuclei with an odd nucleon number have spin and magnetic moment, because the spins and magnetic moments of paired protons and neutrons cancel each other out - they are zero. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is formed by an unpaired nucleon - a proton or neutron. Magnetic resonance imaging can therefore be observed only in nuclei with odd nucleon numbers - especially hydrogen ¹ H, then in ¹³ C, ¹⁵ N, ¹⁹ F, ²³ Na, ³¹ P, etc.
*) Nuclear magneton m _Nis a physical constant expressing the proton's own dipole magnetic moment induced by its spin: m _N = eh / 2m _p , where e is the elementary electric charge (proton, electron), h is the reduced Planck's constant, m _p is the rest mass of the proton. In the system of SI units, its value is approximately m _N = 5,05.10 ^-27 J / T. It is analogous to the Bohr electron magnet m _e = eh / 2m _e, which, however, is 1836 times larger, in the ratio of the mass of the proton and the electron. It is interesting that even a neutron, although electrically uncharged, has a non-zero magnetic moment m _n = -0.966.10 ^-27 J / T somewhat smaller and of the opposite sign than a proton. It turns out that the magnetic moment of nucleons has its origin in their quark structure (§1.5., Part " Quark structure of hadrons " and §1.1, passage " Magnetic moment ").
Magnetic moments of nuclei in a magnetic field 
Under normal circumstances, due to the thermal motion of atoms, the directions of spins and magnetic moments of individual nuclei are chaotically "scattered", their orientation is random and disordered (Fig.3.4.4a), elementary magnetic fields cancel each other out on average, on a macroscopic scale the substance shows no magnetic properties (we do not mean ferromagnetic substances, where it is the effect of electrons in atomic shells) . However, if we place the analyzed substance in a strong magnetic field (of intensity or induction B of the order of several Tesla), the magnetic moments of the nuclei are oriented in the direction of the vector B of this external magnetic field (at least partially).- the magnetic moment of the nuclei is parallel to the magnetic field lines (Fig.3.4.4b). The stronger the magnetic field, the more perfect this arrangement *). Outwardly, this results in non-zero magnetization vector M in the direction of the external magnetic field induction B . The magnitude of the magnetization vector is proportional to the strength of the external magnetic field B and the percentage of concordantly oriented mag. moments of nuclei in matter. A sufficiently strong magnetic field B is now mostly realized by means of a superconducting electromagnet , the winding of which must be permanently cooled by liquid helium (physical principles of superconducting magnets are briefly discussed in §1.5, section " Electromagnets in accelerators ", passage "Superconducting electromagnets ").
*) However, the extent of this arrangement is actually very small ! In commonly used magnetic fields 1-3T, for every 1 million hydrogen nuclei, only about 7-20 nuclei are on average in a state of uniform orientation. The vast majority of nuclei are as a result of thermal motion, it is oriented in different directions, including the opposite one (this is expressed by Boltzmann's law of distribution.) In this sense, it is necessary to take Fig.3.4.4b only as a symbolic scheme, which shows only those few nuclei that acquire concordant orientations. .
  Since conventional material, e.g., water or tissue contains about 1 gram 10 ²²hydrogen nuclei, even a small excess of oriented nuclei provides a measurable magnitude of the magnetization vector and the radio frequency response signal.
Larmor frequency, radiofrequency excitation and relaxation 
In the magnetic field B , the nuclei (with a non-zero magnetic moment m ) behave as magnetic dipoles, which are acted upon by a pair of forces m . B . This will cause the core to rotate the axis of its magnetic moment around the direction B - it will perform a precessional movement (similar to the precessional movement of a gyroscope or children's "spinning top" around the vertical direction in the gravity field) by the so-called Larmor frequency
       w _L =g .B  , or    f _L = ^{g .B} / _{2 p} ,
where g is the gyromagnetic ratio of the nucleus, which is the ratio of the magnetic moment of the nucleus and its "mechanical" moment of inertia [  rad · s ^-1 · T ^-1  ] . The precession movement occurs when the external magnetic field changes or the angle of the magnetic moment in this field changes and lasts as long as the mag. the moment does not stabilize in the rest position.
    If we send a short alternating electromagnetic signal into such a magnetically polarized substance by means of another coil (high-frequency - RF, or radio-frequency - RF) (whose frequency resonates with the above-mentioned Larmor precession f _{L of a} given type of nucleus in a magnetic field) , the direction of the magnetic moment of the nucleus temporarily deviates from the direction determined by the vector B of the external magnetic field (Fig.3.4.4c) *). The deflection of the magnetization vector is caused by the magnetic component of the excitation RF pulse. The angle of this deflection is proportional to the amplitude (energy) of the RF pulse and its duration. The most commonly used RF pulses are 90 ° or 180 °.
*) Fulfillment of the resonance condition: The nuclei are able to efficiently receive energy from an alternating electromagnetic field only if the Larmor frequency of the nucleus precession and the frequency of the electromagnetic pulse are the same. The preceding nuclei thus resonate with an electromagnetic pulse at a given Larmor frequency - hence the name " magnetic resonance ".
    After the unwinding of the excitation signal occurs relaxation (at a constant rotation Larmor frequency) at which they emit electromagnetic waves with decreasing intensity until the magnetic moment of the spiral return back again in the direction B . These electromag. waves will induce alternating voltage in the receiving coils - " echo "Radiofrequency signal **). The relaxation signal (sometimes referred acronym FID - Free Induction Decay) , a sine wave with an exponentially decreasing amplitude (see below Relaxation times ) . It is a useful signal that carries information about the inner structure of the analyte. Frequency of this signal is equal to the above-mentioned Larmor precession and for a given force B of the external magnetic field is determined by the gyromagnetic ratio g of the nucleus, ie the type of nucleus , the amplitude of the relaxation signal is proportional to the concentration of nuclei of the given type analysis of the composition of substances : what elements and in what concentration are contained in the sample. E.g. for hydrogen nuclei (protons) the gyromagnetic constant has the value g = 2,675.10 ^-8 s ^-1 T ^-1 and in the magnetic field of induction 1Tesla Larmor's NM the resonant frequency is 42.574MHz, at 1.5T it is 63.58MHz - the area of radio waves (short waves) . It is proportionally lower for heavier cores.
**) Phasing of a large number of nuclei : The NMR receiving coils are of course not able to detect the relaxation radiation of one or more nuclei. To obtain a measurable signal, deexcitation of a large number of nuclei (> about 10 ¹² ) is required, namelysynchronously and at the same stage ! If phasing occurs, the MNR signal drops sharply or disappears (cf. below " Relaxation times - T2 )
    General note:
Quantum behavior: For the sake of clarity, we have not yet explicitly included the quantum behavior of the magnetic moment, we considered its continuous behavior. The orientation of the magnetic moment vector of nuclei in a magnetic field actually acquires discrete quantum states - parallel (0 °), perpendicular (90 °) and antiparallel (opposite, 180 °) with the direction of the vector B  magnetic induction of an external magnetic field. The basic, energetically lowest state is parallel, while the perpendicular or antiparallel configuration has a higher energy- excited state. From the fundamental to the excited state of the magnetic moment, the nuclei pass by absorbing a quantum of electromagnetic energy, which must be exactly equal to the difference in energy between the two states. The corresponding frequency corresponds to the resonant Larmor frequency . During deexcitation, an electromagnetic signal of the same frequency is then emitted . The precession rotation of the magnetic moment of nuclei in a magnetic field is again just our model idea of how to clearly explain the behavior of nuclei in a magnetic field ...

Fig. 3.4.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance - simplified schematic representation.
a) The magnetic moments of the nuclei in the analyte normally have chaotically scattered directions.
b) By the action of a strong magnetic field B , the mag. moments of nuclei partially orient in the direction of the vector B .
c) By emitting an RF electromagnetic field, these oriented nuclei deviate from the B direction , eg by 90 °. After switching off this RF field, a relaxation occurs, during which the deflected nuclei will emit an electromagnet when they return during the precessional rotation. NMR signal with exponentially decaying amplitude.
d) Simplified schematic diagram of NMR imaging equipment. For simplicity, only one radio frequency (RF) coil is drawn, which electronically switches alternately to transmit and receive modes; usually there are separate transmitting and receiving RF coils. (ADC = analog-to-digital converter, DAC = digital-to-analog converter) .

Radio frequency coils
RF coils are a kind of "antennas" of the NMR system that transmit excitation RF signals towards the analyte or receive response RF signals from the relaxing nuclei in the analyte. In principle, the same coil can be used as the transmitting and receiving coil, which is electronically switched to the transmitting and then to the receiving mode (as symbolically drawn in the diagram in Fig. 3.4.4d). However, better detection of the response NMR signal can be achieved by using a separate receiving RF coil. Due to the relatively high Larmor frequency (tens of MHz), RF coils have a very simple design: they are formed by a loop of wire of circular or rectangular shape, which is placed close to the analyzed material (sample or area of interest in the organism). Sometimes they are suitably shaped (bent into a saddle or cylindrical shape) to achieve better homogeneity of the RF signal in the analyzed area.
  A short but very strong radio frequency alternating current, of high amplitude , is introduced into the transmitting coil in various time sequences., instantaneous power up to tens of kW. In the receiving coil, a response signal is then induced from the relaxing nuclei, on the contrary, with a very low amplitude (of the order of millivolts), which for further electronic processing must be significantly amplified in a narrowband high-frequency amplifier. For NMRI imaging (see below), special RF receiving coils of various sizes and shapes are used to tightly encircle the analyzed area - for imaging the brain, joints, spine, etc.
NMR spectroscopy and analysis
NMR spectroscopy is performed by increasing the frequency of the excitation RF signal, this signal intermittently supplies the coils in the transmitting mode, there is always a switch to the receiving mode and the intensity of the rf signal is measured - echo - transmitted by a sample placed in the magnetic field B _o during the back relaxation of the magnetic moments of the nuclei. The frequency at which the resonant maximum occurs, the Larmor frequency , determines the type of nucleus (the highest is for hydrogen - 42.6MHz for B = 1Tesla), the intensity of the resonant maximum determines the concentration of the relevant atoms in the sample. All nuclei of one isotope, inserted into the same magnetic field, should resonate at the same frequency by themselves. However, if the atoms of these nuclei are part of chemical compounds , the distribution of electrons in their environment differs and these electrons cause electromagnetic shielding of the nuclei. . The effective magnetic field acting on the nucleus is then no longer B _o , but B = B _o . (1- s ), where the shielding factor s , describing the shielding intensity, slightly depends on the chemical composition of the analyte. This change in the effective magnetic field causes a so-called chemical frequency shift in the NMR signal spectrum .
    Another effect affecting the fine structure of the NMR spectrum is the mutual interaction of the nuclei of neighboring atoms mediated by valence electrons. As a result of these interactions, the splitting of the resonant maxima of the studied nuclei is observed into 2-4 lines at a distance of about 20 Hz - there is a multiplicity of signal .
    Detailed analysis of frequencies, intensities and multiplicities in the NMR spectrum can therefore provide information on the chemical composition and structure of organic and inorganic substances. Modern NMR spectrometers are computer controlled, and the induced NMR signal is analyzed using a Fourier transform .
Relaxation times
After switching off the high-frequency excitation field, the deflected nuclei relax in the magnetic field - they return in a spiral path to the original equilibrium state in the direction B _o 
(which we refer to here as the "z" axis), which is observed in the receiving coil as a free reverberation of the induced RF signal with an exponential decrease in amplitude. The rate of this relaxation (or decay time) is influenced by the interaction of nuclear spins with surrounding atoms and the mutual interaction between nuclear spins. The NMR signal also encodes information about the surrounding atoms and molecules - information about the chemical composition and structure of the substance. The decay time of the resonant signal is characterized by two relaxation times T ₁ and T ₂ .
    Relaxation time T 1 , sometimes called spin-lattice (the name comes from the original use of NMR for the analysis of solids with a crystal lattice) , represents the basic time constant of relaxation of magnetic moments of nuclei from the deflected position to the equilibrium position in the direction of the permanent magnetic field. Illustrates the speed with which the deflected core while relaxing supplies energy electromagnetic waves, and the ambient temperature, the longitudinal magnetization in the axial direction from the initial value to the M _by returning exponential law: M _Z = M _a (1 - e ^{-t / T 1} )  . It is defined as the time taken for the longitudinal magnetization to relax (1-e) times the original valueM _o , whereby the signal drops to 63% (if the excitation of the magnetic moment of the core by 90 ° was performed).
    The relaxation time T 2 , sometimes called spin-spin , expresses the time constant with which, due to the mutual interaction of spins and magnetic moments of adjacent nuclei, leading to the phasing out of the precessional motion of magnetic moments, the magnetization decreases in the transverse direction xy: M _XY = M _XYo e ^{- t / T 2} . T 2 is defined as the time during which the transverse magnetization M _XY decreases e-times.
    Note: The receiving coil in the MRI actually detects a shorter relaxation time marked T2 * after the excitation pulse has ended . In addition to the relaxation time T2, it is caused by a steeper decrease in the transverse component of the material magnetization due to small changes in the inhomogeneity of the magnetic field, leading to desynchronization. In MRI imaging, this phenomenon is usually negative, it can be corrected or eliminated in the so-called " spin-echo sequence" - see below.
    The relaxation times T 1 and T 2 are the result of the interaction of resonant nuclei with their surroundings and characterize the chemical properties and structure of the investigated material. In medical use, they are often significantly different for healthy and tumor tissue.
  In the most commonly used external magnetic field of 1.5 T, the relaxation times T 1 and T 2 of water and some human tissues (in the physiological state) have the following approximate values :

Relaxation times are characteristic of different substances and tissues - they depend on the concentration of nuclei, temperature, size of molecules, chemical bonds. It can be seen from the table that, for example, hydrogen nuclei tightly bound in fat or protein molecules relax much faster than protons weakly bound in water molecules.
NMR imaging - MRI
The NMR method originally served as an analytical method for the composition and structure of samples. Advances in electronics and computer technology in the 1970s and 1980s made it possible to use the NMR signal to create an image of proton density in an object under investigation. This created the NMR imaging method (NMRI - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging; the word "nuclear" is often omitted and the abbreviation MRI is used ) - Fig.3.4.4d.
    In order to be able to detect NMR signals separately and locally from individual places of the examined object (organism or tissue) and use it to create an image , it is necessary to ensure spatial-geometric coding of coordinates in the examined object. This can be achieved by the main constant homogeneous field B _by superimposing an additional gradient magnetic field in the axis direction X, Y, Z. These gradient magnetic fields in the direction of each X, Y, Z axis are generated by a respective pair of gradient coils. By changing the gradient magnetic field, we achieve that the magnetic resonance will always occur in a different place of the examined object. By this gradient magnetic coding of spatial coordinates we can then perform NMR imaging.
Gradient coils 
are "additional" electromagnets located in suitable places inside the main strong electromagnet. They are wound with copper wire or metal tape, dimensioned for relatively high currents of tens or hundreds of amperes. Gradient coils are supplied in pulse sequences with a relatively strong current (approx. 500A) from electronically controlled sources, which allow fast and accurate setting of the strength and direction of the excited magnetic field - an additional gradient field. They produce gradients in the range of about 20-100 mT / m. In order for MRI imaging not to take an enormously long time, the rate of gradient changes needs to be relatively high - it reaches about 100-200 Tm ^-1 .s ^-1; it requires a certain voltage (approx. 50-300V) to overcome the inductance of the gradient coils - the power supplies of the gradient coils are relatively robust (power). Strong current surges in the gradient coils when interacting with the magnetic field cause mechanical vibrations , which causes considerable noise during MRI. Longitudinal gradient coils (in the Z direction ) have turns wound in the same direction as the main coil, X (gradient in the left-right direction) and Y (gradient in the up-down direction) are formed by saddle-shaped coils with vertically wound turns.
    Note first the longitudinal gradient field B _z (z) in the Z direction . His superposition with the main mag. field B _o causes the actual "local" value of the magnetic field B = B _o + B _z (z) to depend on the z coordinate : B = B (z). If we send a high-frequency pulse of a certain frequency f to a sample placed in this slightly inhomogeneous gradient magnetic field , the magnetic resonance signal will be transmitted by atomic nuclei only from a thin layer of the sample with coordinate z , for which the resonance condition f = g .B (z ) / 2 p . By changing the frequency f of high-frequency excitation pulses, or the intensity of the longitudinal gradient field B _z , the position of the layer in which the magnetic resonance response signal is generated changes . In this way, information about the dependence of the spatial distribution of the density of the nuclei in the direction of the Z axis is captured - the electronic-geometric coding of this coordinate is achieved - the layer z .
  The representation of the spatial distribution of the density of nuclei in a given layer z in the transverse directions X and Y is then obtained by the action of another, transverse, gradient magnetic field in the direction of the X and Y axis, whereby the investigated layer decomposes into elementary volumes - " pixels"In which the determined intensity of the dependence of the relaxation of the NMR signal, and also the decay time. Changing these gradient fields to obtain data for each place in the layer of and computer reconstruction of the obtained cross-section image of proton density of the examined layer from (obr.3.4. 4d right). electronic analysis of relaxation times of the NMR signal is also generated even images of cross sections in relaxation times T 1 and T 2 (referred to as T 1 or T 2 - weighted images). a plurality of images of cross sections for the different values are from then creates 3-dimensional tomographic imageinvestigated areas in proton density and relaxation times in individual " voxels ". Using computer graphics, it is then possible to create images of any sections of the examined area, which are brightly modulated in a wide range of shades of gray (from white to black), to distinguish the structure of tissues and organs.
    The basic subject of NMRI imaging is hydrogen nuclei - imaging of proton density and relaxation times. This is why NMRI is sometimes referred to as " hydrogen topographic imaging ". The intensity of such an NMR image mainly reflects the amount of water at each locationin the examined tissue and the nature of the binding and distribution of hydrogen molecules in the cells and extracellular space, as well as the distribution of fat and proteins. Based on these structural differences, different tissues can be distinguished from each other in MRI images - such as water, muscle, fat, gray matter and white matter in the brain.
    In general, two basic information is captured locally in NMRI images :
1. Density distribution of nuclei producing nuclear magnetic resonance - most often the proton density of PD hydrogen in the tissue. PD images essentially capture the anatomical structure of tissues and organs, and are largely similar to CT X-rays, which map the electron density of tissues.
2. Distributionrelaxation times T 1 and T 2 related to the chemical composition and structural state of the tissue in individual places. Such images are called T 1 and T 2 - weighted .
    The extent to which the proton density PD will be represented in the resulting MRI image, the times T 1 and T 2 - how and how this image will be modulated - " weighted " - is determined by pulse sequences : time sequence of transmitted RF pulses and "echo" response signals (will be discussed in more detail below) .

Fig.3.4.5 MRI images of the brain (transaxial section, without pathology) in proton density, relaxation times T 1 and T 2 and in a special FLAIR sequence to suppress the water signal.
(MRI brain images were taken by Jaroslav Havelka, MD, head of the MRI RDG department at the University Hospital Ostrava )

Proton densities and especially relaxation times are different not only for different types of tissues (see table above), but also differ depending on the physiological or pathological condition of the same tissue. This makes NMRI imaging an important diagnostic method in medicine , including in the field of cancer diagnostics.
    Note: As with X-ray diagnostics, NMRI uses contrast agents to increase the contrast of images of certain structures (eg cavities or blood vessels) , but not on a density but on a magnetic basis - ferromagnetic compounds , mostly based on gadolinium . Pulse sequence in NMRI
In medical MR imaging, it is desirable to create images with sufficient high contrast between different tissue types so that the MRI radiologist can best answer the clinical diagnostic question. Optimal image contrast between different tissues with different densities and rexation times can be achieved by suitable excitation of magnetic moments of nuclei and subsequent measurement of their response MR signal: by setting parameters of pulse sequence - time sequence of transmitted electromagnetic excitation pulses RF cores. The first parameter here is the intensity (energy) of the transmitted radio frequency excitation pulse ( RF)), which determines the predominant angle of deflection (tilt) of the magnetization vector of the analyzed nuclei - 90 ° or 180 °. The higher the excitation intensity radiated into the analyzed target tissue, the higher the percentage of mag flips. torque and the stronger the response signal and more time is needed for relaxation. Another parameter is the time interval TR , in which we repeatedly apply individual radiofrequency excitation pulses. The shorter this interval, the less time there is for T1 relaxation. The third parameter is the time TE (echo time)between the excitation pulse and the detection of the response resonant signal. The longer this time, the less nuclei with a shorter relaxation time T2 will contribute to the measured resonant signal. The fully indicative values ??of the pulse sequence times for obtaining the basic types of MRI images at B = 1.5 T are :
    PD: TR = 1000 ms, TE = 5-30 ms; T 1 -weighted: TR = 10 ms, TE = 5-30 ms; T 2 -weighted: TR = 1000-2000 ms, TE = 80-100 ms.
    In connection with these addictions, several significant sequences of transmission of excitation radiofrequency pulses and subsequent detection of response relaxation signals have been developed (sometimes called "MRI techniques " in MR jargon ) :   
-> Saturation - recovery sequence in which 90 ° RF pulses are transmitted at regular intervals. Upon arrival of each RF pulse, the magnetization vector rotates 90 ° and relaxation begins with different times T 1 in different tissues. When another RF pulse arrives, the z-component of the magnetization will be different in different tissues. With a suitable repetition period TR of excitation RF pulses, we can set the optimal contrast of the desired tissues at times T 1 . This simplest MRI technique is now rarely used, it has been replaced by the inversion-recovery sequence below, providing higher contrast.
-> Spin - echo a sequence consisting of a 90 ° RF pulse followed by a 180 ° RF pulse. After the magnetization vector has been flipped into the xy plane due to a 90 ° RF pulse, T 2 (resp. T 2 *) relaxes, during which phasing occurs. However, the subsequent 180 ° RF pulse has a "refocusing" effect - it flips the individual spins in the xy plane by 180 ° and the spins are phased again. The result is an echo signal in the receiving coil, the amplitude of which depends on the relaxation times T 1 and T 2 of the tissue (unfavorable T2 * does not apply here, because the effect of magnetic field inhomogeneity on phasing is eliminated by 180 ° pulse phasing) . The character and contrast of the display can be adjusted using the times TR and TE. With short TR and short TE we get T 1-weighted image, long TR and short TE provide a proton density image, long TR and long TE provide a T 2 -weighted image. Due to this variability of imaging options, spin-echo is the most commonly used MRI technique.
-> Inversion - recovery sequence, consisting of a sequence of 180 ° and the following 90 ° RF pulse. The initial 180 ° pulse inverts the magnetization vector to the opposite, after which T 1 relaxation takes place . With a time interval TI - inversion time , a 90 ° RF pulse then follows, which flips the magnetization vector into the xy plane. A RF signal dependent on T 1 is detected in the receiving coilrelaxation time of the displayed tissue. The contrast of the image can be adjusted appropriately using the TI time. A significantly more contrasting image can be achieved than with the saturation recovery technique.
By a special setting of the time T1 = T 1 .ln2, the suppression of the image of the tissue having this relaxation time T 1 is achieved . By setting the short inversion time TI (approx. 140ms with a 1.5T magnet) - the so-called short time inversion recovery STIR - the suppression of the fat signal is achieved in the image . Conversely, by extending the time TI (to about 2600ms) - fluid attenuation inversion recovery FLAIR - we can achieve suppression of the water signal. Other fine details and anomalies in the structure of the examined tissues can then be better assessed on such "cleaned" images.
-> Gradient - the echo sequence begins with a 90 ° RF pulse (which tilts the magnetization vector to the xy plane), after which a magnetic field gradient is applied. The nuclei in adjacent atoms will thus show a precession with a slightly different Larmor frequency, which will cause spin phasing. The application of the second mag. gradient with the opposite sign, which rephases the spins and at this point the echo is measured. Used to obtain a T 2 -weighted image.
-> .......... sequence ............ ? add more sequences? ........... ? complete the picture of the graphic sequence diagram? ...
    Computer analysis of MRI images obtained with appropriate sequences (mentioned above) can create special image modulations - such as water or fat signal suppression images . Other special sequences are used for functional MRI (mentioned below) :
-> Susceptibility weighted imaging ( SWI ) shows tissues with slightly different magnetic susceptibility. It uses an extended gradient-echo sequence for display in T 2 * . Its main variant is Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) , see fMRI below .
-> Diffusion weighted imaging (DWI)shows the diffusion of water inside tissue elements, manifested by Brownian motion of molecules. Using a spin-echo sequence with the application of 2 gradients, a subtle effect is registered, in which Brownian-moving water molecules show a different phasing-phasing relationship when reversing the mag. gradient; this leads to a slightly weaker T 2 signal.
MRI Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRS) can be supplemented by the magnetic resonance spectrometry (MRS) described above, which enriches this examination with additional physiological information . Chemical analysis is performed here by analyzing the chemical shift of the Larmor frequency imaging structures in-vivo, eg choline or lipid levels. Chemical shifts are very fine, so this method is demanding not only in terms of signal analysis, but also requires high intensity (recommended at least 3 T) and homogeneity of the magnetic field.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging - fMRI 
Magnetic resonance imaging may be a suitable method for non-invasive imaging of the function of various tissues and organs (along with "molecular" imaging in nuclear medicine - .....). So far, fMRI has found application mainly in functional brain imaging , mapping neuronal activity . Neurons (which do not have internal energy stores)they need to get sugar and oxygen quickly for their increased activity. The hemodynamic response to this need causes an increase in blood perfusion at a given site, but mainly a greater release of oxygen from the blood than inactive neurons. This leads to a change in the relative levels of oxygenated oxyhemoglobin and non-oxygenated deoxyhemoglobin in the blood at sites of neuronal activity.
    In this respect, two basic methods of indirect mapping of neuronal activity are used:
- Local increase of perfusion at the site of increased neuronal activity - perfusion fMRI .
- Change in the ratio of oxygenated and non-oxygenated blood at the site of neuronal activity. The method is called BOLD fMRI (B lood Oxygen Level Dependent). Changes in the relative levels of oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin can be detected based on their slightly different magnetic susceptibility. Basic hemoglobin without bound oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin) has slightly paramagnetic properties, but when oxygen is bound to it (oxyhemoglobin), it behaves slightly diamagnetically . If more deoxyhemoglobin accumulates at a certain site in the brain tissue, a slightly stronger MRI signal is obtained from it than from the sites where deoxyhemoglobin predominates.
  MRI functional imaging of the brain is performed after neurological activation , either motor (eg movement of fingers) , visual, linguistic or cognitive.
The physical-electronic implementation of NMRI 
NMR imaging isthe most complex imaging method. The operation of the device for NMR imaging is electronically very complicated and demanding, so it must be controlled by a powerful computer with sophisticated software - Fig.3.4.4d. In the multiplex mode , the process of transmitting a sequence of radio frequency pulses, modulation of gradient magnetic fields, sensing and analysis of relaxation signals of magnetic resonance, reconstruction and creation of the resulting images, as well as a number of other transformation and correction procedures are synchronously controlled. Since these are harmonic (sinusoidal) waveforms, scanning and reconstruction are performed using Fourier analysis - in the frequency so-called K-space. It is a set of matrices defined in the memory of the MRI evaluation computer, into the individual elements of which the frequencies, amplitudes and coordinates of MRI signals are recorded. From these "raw" data, the resulting MRI images are created using Fourier transform and other analytical methods.
    Note: Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) is based on a similar principle as NMR . The magnetic moments of the electron shells of atoms are used here .........

3.5. Radioisotope tracking methods
Radioisotope tracking or indicator methods are used to monitor the hidden movement and distribution of matter within physical, chemical or biological systems, or in various technological devices. A suitable "labeled" substance with bound radionuclide is introduced into the system - the so-called radio indicator , whose movement and behavior in the system is then monitored on the basis of detection of ionizing radiation emitted during radioactive transformations of nuclei in the radio indicator. The movement and distribution of the radio indicator can be monitored in two basic ways :

• Sampling from suitable places of the monitored system, their adjustment and measurement with a suitable detector ( g or b ).
• External detection of emitting radiation radiation g by detector placed in suitable places of the examined system (occasionally inside, mostly outside the monitored system).

Radioisotope tracking methods are used in many fields of science and technology, industry, agriculture and especially medicine. Here we will briefly mention a few technical and general biological applications, we will focus in more detail below on applications in nuclear medicine.
    Radioisotope tracking methods were first tested in 1913 by the chemist G.Hevesy, who found that radioisotopes have the same chemical behavior as stable isotopes of the same element. However, unlike stable isotopes, radionuclides can be "visible" through the penetrating radiation generated by the transformation of nuclei.

Radioisotope scintigraphy and nuclear medicine
Nuclear medicine is a field dealing with diagnostics and therapy using radioactive substances in open form , applied to the internal environment of the organism.
  Radioactive isotopes react chemically in the same way as stable isotopes of the same element - therefore they behave in the organism's metabolism in the same way as non-radioactive isotopes of a given element. However, due to the fact that radioactive isotopes are "visible" through penetrating radiation, which arises during radioactive transformations of their nuclei, it is possible to monitor the movement and metabolism of elements and compounds containing radionuclides - radioindicators - in the body and thusinvestigate the functions of individual bodies. Depending on the organ whose function is to be examined, the specific substance ( radiopharmaceutical ) shall be labeled with an appropriate radioisotope. After application to the body, the movement and metabolism of this substance is monitored - either by imaging with a gamma camera or by measuring the samples taken (blood or urine).
Radioisotope diagnostics in vivo - scintigraphy
In radionuclide diagnostics in vivo in nuclear medicine, the patient is administered (usually intravenously, sometimes orally or by inhalation) a small amount of a suitable g - radioactive substance - the so-called radioindicator or radiopharmaceuticals. The radioindicator used is specific to individual organs and types of examinations. The applied radioactive substance enters the metabolism of the organism and is distributed there according to its chemical composition - physiologically or pathologically it accumulates in certain organs and their parts and is subsequently excreted or regrouped. Gamma radiation emanates from the deposition sites of the radioindicator , which, due to its penetration, passes through the tissue out of the organism. Using sensitive detectors, we measure this radiation g and thus determine the distribution of the radioindicator in individual organs and structures inside the body.
    The most perfect devices of this kind are gamma cameras (scintillation cameras) - using themwe display in radiation g the distribution of the radioindicator in the organism. This method, called scintigraphy , thus makes it possible to obtain not only anatomical information, but mainly to tell about organ functions and metabolism. By mathematical evaluation of scintigraphic studies, we can obtain curves of the time course of the radioindicator distribution and calculate dynamic parameters characterizing the function of the relevant organs.

Schematic imaging of the entire process of scintigraphic examination - from the application of a radio indicator to the patient, through the process of scintigraphic imaging with a gamma camera, evaluation, mathematical analysis and quantification, to the interpretation and diagnosis.

The tomographic SPECT (Single Photon Emission Copied Computerized Tomography) gamma camera slowly rotates around the patient's body, scans scintigraphic images from various angles and then uses computer reconstruction to create cross-sectional images (sections perpendicular to the camera's axis of rotation), from which computer graphics can be used to construct spatial (3-dimensional) images of the distribution of the radio indicator in the organs inside the body.
    The PET gamma camera (Positron Computerized Tomography) detects photons of gamma annihilation radiation (511 keV energy) flying in opposite directions during the annihilation of positrons emitted by b ⁺radioindicator administered to the patient. These photons of annihilation radiation are coincidentally detected by an annular scintillation detector, and by computer reconstruction of the line projections of the coincidence sites, images of cross-sections are generated and, if necessary, 3D images similar to SPECT.
    Nuclear medicine provides specific methods for the examination of virtually all organs and thus cooperates with a wide range of clinical disciplines. The most widespread use is mainly in  cardiology , nephrology , neurology , oncology , thyrology , gastroenterology .
    Nuclear medicine methods are among the least burdensome non-invasivediagnostic examination methods. Due to the high sensitivity of the detectors, only a very small amount of radiopharmaceutical is applied to the patient, which is needed to obtain quality image information. The radiation exposure in methods in nuclear medicine is comparable (and often smaller) as in X-ray examinations *).
*) During X-ray examination, the source of ionizing radiation is a device and the radiation dose depends, among other things, on the number of images performed or on the extent of the area scanned during CT. In scintigraphy, the source of radiation is not a diagnostic device, but the patient himself, resp. its investigating body. Thus, we can take any number of scintigraphic images without changing the radiation exposure of the patient.
  Radionuclide scintigraphy is described in detail in Chapter 4 " Radioisotope scintigraphy " .

Radiation-guided surgery - sentinel nodes
An important radioisotope tracking method of nuclear medicine is local radiation measurement with a closely collimated miniature gamma-ray detection probe in radiation-guided surgery in the detection of so-called sentinel nodes . In the surgical treatment of cancer, it is important to remove not only the primary tumor, but also, if possible, other tissues into which the tumor cells could be infiltrated. These tumor cells spread from the primary site mainly through the lymphatic pathways, so that the lymph nodes around the tumor site are the first to be affected . If we apply a suitable radioindicator of colloidal state to the peripheral part of the tumor lesion (most often ^99mTc nanocolloid, particle size approx. 50-600 nm, activity approx. 40-150 MBq), will propagate through the lymphatic pathways and capture and accumulate in those nodes that are lymphatically associated with the tumor site. The first such node in the lymphatic "basin" of a tumor foci is called the sentinel node . The accumulation of the radio indicator in the nodes can be displayed scintigraphically. However, the most important thing is to monitor the radioindicator during the actual surgical procedure, when using a collimated detection probe, the surgeon can find a sentinel node containing the radioindicator directly in the operating field.
*) Along with the radioindicator, a blue dye is applied at the same time, which also penetrates the nodes, so that the surgeon can recognize the sentinel node by its blue color.
    After application of the radioindicator, scintigraphic imaging is performed with the imaging nodes drawn, then the patient goes to his own surgery , during which a detection gamma probe is used both for perioperative sentinel node detection and for radioactivity detection in an already operated node. This is followed by histological examination of the sentinel node to classify the type of tumor, which will help optimize the further course of therapy.

In vitro diagnostics. Radioimmunoassay - radiosaturation analysis
In nuclear medicine, in vitro radioisotope diagnostic methods are also used , where (non-radioactive) samples taken from patients are analyzed using radioisotope techniques - radiochemical and at the same time biochemical. Most often it is a radioimmunoassay ( RIA ) or radiosaturation analysis (RSA), which is used to highly sensitively determine the concentration of complex biological substances in the blood serum - hormones, tumor markers and other biologically important substances . It is based on an immunochemical reaction antigen with a specific antibody (Ab - antibody). A competitive immunoreaction is used in which the radiolabeled Ag * antigen "competes" for binding sites on the antibody (which is present in a limited amount in the reaction mixture) with the unlabeled antigen. An appropriate antibody labeled with the appropriate Ag * radionuclide (usually I-125 radioiodine ) is added to the sample analyzed.), which reacts with the hormone to form an insoluble Ag * -Ab complex. After removal of the unbound fraction (rinsing with water), a compound remains in the sample, the activity of which will depend on the concentration of hormone in the analyzed sample - the amount of labeled antigen-antibody Ag * -Ab complex is inversely proportional to the concentration of antigen to be determined. The more test substance present in the primary sample, the smaller the amount of labeled Ag * -Ab antigen-antibody complex formed and the lower the activity in the final sample. It is measured in a well scintillation detector (see §2.7, section " Automatic measurement of a series of samples ") . These methods are of great importance for endocrinology.
...................fill in
  RIA or RSA methods reached their greatest development in the 1970s and 1980s, when they were widely performed in radiochemical RIA laboratories in the departments of nuclear medicine. Then they gradually moved from nuclear medicine workplaces to clinical biochemistry laboratories . Since the 1990s, they have been gradually extruded and replaced by fluorescent and chemiluminescent optical methods, without the use of radionuclides and ionizing radiation ...

Radioisotope therapy
In addition to diagnostics, nuclear medicine also includes therapy with open radionuclides, eg treatment of hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer, blood diseases, palliative and curative therapy for various types of tumors, joint diseases - see below for more details in §3.6 "Radiotherapy", part " Radioisotope therapy ".

Nuclear medicine - interdisciplinary field
Nuclear medicine is due to the physical nature of its methods and instrumentation used branch interdisciplinary . Besides doctors (specialist and board-certified nuclear medicine) , nurses and laboratory technicians, are working in teamwork as well as experts from other professions - physicist , electronics , radiochemik , pharmacist . Along with medical and physical-technical aspects, considerable attention is also paid to radiation protection of workers and patients in the workplaces of nuclear medicine when working with radioisotopes (see Chapter 5 "Biological effects of ionizing radiation. Radiation protection ").

A detailed description of the principles, methods and clinical use of nuclear medicine is in Chapter 4
" Radioisotope scintigraphy " .

Autoradiography
- photographic representation of the distribution of the beta-radioindicator in the examined preparations in close contact of the photographic emulsion with the sample is described in §2.2 " Photographic detection of ionizing radiation ", passage " Autoradiography ".

3.6. Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy is a physico-medical field using the biological effects of ionizing radiation for therapeutic purposes. The vast majority of it is a therapy for cancer - radiation oncology , to a lesser extent, some degenerative and inflammatory disorders are treated with radiation. Recently, so-called radiosurgery has sometimes been used , especially for vascular and neurological malformations (see the " Stereotactic radiotherapy " section) . Before we focus on our own radiotherapy, we will mention some biological aspects of cancer, diagnostics and non-radiation therapeutic methods (chemotherapy, biological therapy) - to put the issue in a broader context.

Tumors - their nature and origin
Tumors, especially malignant, are among the most common and most serious diseases, threatening the health and lives of patients. During the formation of a tumor, pathological tissue mass ( neoplasm ) is formed , usually irreversible, in which uncontrolled proliferation of tumor cells takes place , at the expense of healthy tissue; there is no feedback in the body to stop this growth. Tumor cells can grow into the surrounding tissue and migrate through lymphatic or blood vessels to other parts of the body (establish metastases ). With its uncontrolled division of the meat of tumor cells, it suppresses the surrounding healthy tissue, disrupts it and can thus disrupt the function of important organs. The cause of such a condition it is not exactly known *) , it lies deep inside the cell structure, probably in mutational changes in DNA. Prevention and causal treatment of cancer is therefore difficult.
*) Only some risk factors were observed, which contribute to the development of tumors or increase the probability of their occurrence. They are various chemical substances, so-called carcinogens , such as some cyclic hydrocarbons and cigarette smoke, the composition of food. Or biological effects - some viruses (so-called oncoviruses ), whose RNA can (via so-called reverse transcriptase) enter the DNA of eukaryotic cells and alter their genetic information, they can cause tumor transformation of cells (or they may not lead directly to tumor formation, but prevent an immune response that would be able to recognize tumor cells and destroy them). Then there are genetic factors , hereditary predisposition ( hereditary genomic imprinting eg in Nyemegen syndrome, Ataxia teleagiectasia, Bloom's syndrome, Fanconi anemia, Xeroderma pigmentosum, Li-Fraumeni syndrome of the mutated TP53 gene encoding p53); it is caused by a specific mutation in the tumor suppressor genes (TP53 gene mutation in Li-Fraumeni syndrome, NF1,2 in neurofibromatosis, BRCA1,2 in hereditary breast and ovarian cancer, APC in colorectal polyposis, WT1 and Wilms' kidney tumor, RB1 in retinoblastoma, MLM gene mutation in malignant melanoma). Of the physical influences, it is ultraviolet radiation acting on the skin and especially harder ionizing radiation , as discussed in detail in §5.2 " Biological effects of ionizing radiation ".
Carcinogenesis - the formation of tumors
Under normal circumstances, a multicellular organism is a system of individual tissues and organs, consisting of a large number of cells, performing their function in a harmonious community for the benefit of the whole organism. This cooperation and "social behavior" of cells is ensured by very complex and complex regulatory processes, including signals from monitoring the external environment, transmission of signals to the internal environment of the cell, cellular response, evaluation of signals and their coordination with other signals. Cells that do not fit into this regulatory mechanism (due to damage or loss of their function) are eliminated by the mechanisms of "programmed" cell death, apoptosis. Also, cell proliferation is precisely controlled to meet the needs of the tissue and the organism - dynamic balance, tissue homeostasis . Disruption of regulatory mechanisms can cause various pathological conditions and diseases of the body. One of them is a violation of the regulation of cell division: in some cell a genetic change (mutation) occurs that allows it to survive, divide and produce daughter cells that do not "listen" to the regulatory mechanisms of tissue homeostasis. This can create a gradually expanding population of mutated cells - a clone of tumor cells , multiplying at the expense of healthy tissue.
    Tumor formation ( carcinogenesis  ) is a complex multi-step process in which several mutations gradually accumulate, which do not harm the altered cells, but on the contrary favor them and allow their rapid division regardless of the needs of the organism. The following factors are important for the origin and development of cancer :
¨ Cell cycle deregulation
To maintain tissue homeostasis (a balanced number of functional cells of a given tissue) it is necessary to control the rate at which cells form, develop and die - cell cycle regulation. Due to some mutations, autonomic growth (mitogenic) factors in the cell, their autocrine production, or loss of sensitivity to signals that stop the cell cycle may occur. In particular, p21 and p27 proteins are involved in cell cycle regulation and division , which may bind to and inhibit the activity of certain kinases (serving as regulators of DNA replication and cell division); the content of these regulatory proteins in tumor cells tends to be reduced. On the contrary, the activity of some kinases (§5.2, section " Cells - basic units of living organisms ", passage " Proteins, enzymes, kinases ") is increased in tumor cells. It is mainly a tyrosine kinase - an enzyme which transfers phosphate to the hydroxyl group of the cyclic amino acid tyrosine, thereby affecting the function and activity of the protein in question. Increased epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) tyrosine kinase activity leads to increased intracellular signaling, disrupting cell cycle regulation. This increased EGFR activity may be due to increased expression of the EGFR ligand (which is the epidermal growth factor EGF), or by a mutation in the EGFR tyrosine kinase domain that results in sustained ligand-independent activation of the mutated receptor. Another receptor which promotes cell growth and division, the epidermal growth factor receptor HER2 (Human Epidermal Receptor) , also called erbB2 , in the increased presence of which there is an excessive division of cells, which can lead to the formation of a tumor. Also, deregulated signal transduction through the P3K / Akt / mTOR phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase signaling pathway provides cells with stimuli for unrestricted growth and survival, which can lead to tumor growth.
    Disruption of cell cycle regulation can lead to the proliferation of such altered cells independently of the environment, independent of the needs of the tissue and the organism - it is usually the first stage of carcinogenesis.
¨ Inhibition of apoptosis
Another important mechanism for maintaining tissue homeostasis is the regulation of the rate at which "excess" cells in the tissue population die. The usual way in which cells undergo controlled death is apoptosis
(described in more detail in §5.2, section "Effect of radiation on cells", passage " Mechanisms of cell death ", where the internal and external signaling pathways of apoptosis are discussed) - "programmed" cell death, actively controlled by the cell . The apoptotic program is potentially present in all cells, it is triggered by internal signals (DNA damage, hypoxia, ...) or external "death signals" that the cell receives from regulatory mechanisms in the tissue. Properly functioning apoptosis, triggered by external regulatory mechanisms from the tissue, provides effective protection against excessive cell proliferation. Apoptosis triggered by internal mechanisms then acts as a protection against the survival and proliferation of mutated cells with damaged DNA. Inhibition (blocking,cells - allows developing tumor cells to survive and multiply, despite the body's interest. Apoptosis can be disrupted, for example, by altering the TP53 gene encoding the p53 protein, increasing the concentration of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 gene in mitochondria (protecting mitochondrial membranes - preventing cytochrome c penetration and caspase chain triggering proteolytic degradation in the cytoplasm) and other unexplored factors. .
Note: This is mainly a suppressed apoptosis induced by external regulatory mechanisms of the tissue. However, with strong irradiation of tumor cells, which causes severe irreversible DNA damage, internally activated apoptosis occurs .
¨ Immortilization of cells
Most common somatic cells can only reach a certain limit in the number of their divisions, the so-called Hayflick limit (about 40-60 cycles); then the cells lose their ability to divide . This is due to mitotic shortening of DNA telomeres (about cell cycle, telomere shortening, cell senescence, apoptosis, etc. see also §5.2 " Biological effects of ionizing radiation ") . This limit in the number of divisions would automatically stop the growth of the tumor population. Increased occurrence of an active enzyme called telomerase (in co-production with tankyrase ), or mechanisms of homologous recombination of telomere sequences (discussed in §5.2, part " DNA, chromosomes, telomeres"), however, they are able to ensure complete replication of DNA ends (prevent telomere shortening) - gaining unlimited replication potential , so-called immortilization -" immortality "of cells. Unregulated and unrestricted division of clonogenic tumor cells disease.
¨ Inhibition of immunogenity
The immune system is fundamentally capable to recognize tumor cells and destroy them. Some tumor cells, however, they lose their immunogenicity *) or the immune system is impaired - these cells are outside the control of the immune mechanisms and may cause their uncontrolled proliferation. *) Many tumor cells have the CD47 protein on their surface, which protects them from white blood cells (physiologically, this protein occurs on the surface of blood cells to protect them from its own white blood cells) and therefore cannot be destroyed by the immune system.
¨ (neo)Angiogenesis
In the initial stages (tumor size up to about 0.5-1 mm), tumor cells are supplied with oxygen and nutrients by diffusion from the surrounding intercellular environment of the tissue in which the tumor grows. As the number of tumor cells increases, this supply is no longer sufficient - there is hypoxia of the tumor tissue, accompanied by the expression of special interleukins , especially HIF1 ( hypoxia-iducible transcription factor ), inducing the production of vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF (as well as VEGF mRNA expression). The regulatory mechanisms in the tissue can respond to this by angiogenesis - the formation of new blood vessels, ensuring the blood supply to the tumor tissue and its rich supply of oxygen and nutrients, as well as flushing out metabolic waste. Tumor growth is dependent on angiogenesis - it necessarily requires a sufficient supply of nutrients and oxygen, which are provided by newly formed blood vessels. Each increase in tumor volume is associated with the growth of new capillaries.
N adore neo-angiogenesis or neovascularization is an important milestone in the progression of cancer, allowing tumors to grow to macroscopic size, threatening tissue and whole organism. Blood flow to the tumor tissue also allows the spread of tumor cells through the bloodstream - the formation of metastases(see below).
    The issue of carcenogenesis is very complex, with a number of unexplored factors. In addition to mutations of known and coding genes in DNA, so-called " genetic litter " or " unnecessary DNA " sequences can also be used , which can act as regulatory "triggers" or "switches" of intracellular processes via the respective RNAs (see also §5.2, part " DNA, chromosomes, telomeres ") .

Types of tumors
Tumors and tumors disease (often collectively referred to as carcinoma or cancer ) are characterized by a large number of species and great variability. They are divided according to several criteria :
l According to health severity
× Benign tumors (lat. Benignus = harmless, friendly, generous ) are usually localized and isolated from the surrounding tissue by encapsulation, do not grow into other tissues and do not form distant metastases. They do not have to create major damage or difficulties for the organism (they can often remain in the tissue - but beware of the risk of malignant collapse!), If necessary, they can usually be successfully surgically removed.
× Malignant tumors (lat. malignus = evil, evil-bearing ) , or tumors (lat. tumor = swelling, swelling ) , grow destructively and infiltratively - tumor cells grow into the intercellular spaces of the surrounding tissues (which suppress and disrupt), the cells are released and spreads through the blood or lymphatic route to other tissues and organs, where they often form distant secondary "daughter deposits", so-called metastases (Greek meta = change, stasis = place ® change of place, relocation ) . Even after removal of the primary tumor site, metastases can continue to grow and form more metastases. Due to metastatic spread ( dissemination ) can lead to the uncontrolled spread of the disease, often to the whole organism ( generalization ).
l According to the organ from which the tumor primarily originates
- eg breast, lung, bronchogenic, prostate, etc. Some types of tumors have, depending on the place of origin and origin, special names with the suffix " -om " - eg melanoma or melanoblastoma (skin cancer) . melanocyte cell tumor), glioma or glioblastoma (primary brain tumor, also astrocytoma ), lymphoma
(tumor growth of lymphoreticular tissue), etc. A malignant tumor of hematopoietic tissue, manifested by an increase in white blood cells (which are immature and do not perform their normal function), is called leukemia .
l According to the location of metastatic involvement - eg metastasis of breast cancer to the liver, skeleton, etc.
l By tissue and cell nature
- Epithelial tumors called (in the narrower sense) carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. According to the cell layer from which they originate, they are further divided into squamous cell and basal cell carcinomas (these names come from skin tumors).
According to the microscopic appearance of cancer cells (for histologic observation) and shape of the tumor growth is sometimes used designation papillary (warty - tumor forming warty or fimbriate formations), tubular (forming a tubular structure), medullary (bone marrow), ductal (PTO), lobular (lobe ) and the like.
Benign tumors arising from the glandular epithelium are called adenomas .
- Mesenchymal tumors , called sarcomas , come from connective tissues. They occur less often.
    The resulting terminology of specific types of tumors is often formed by combining the names of individual categories - eg prostate adenocarcinoma , osteosarcoma in the skeleton, etc.
Anatomical extent - progression - cancer (staging)
To assess the possibilities of optimal therapy , the progression of cancer is crucial - how the tumor growth in the body has spread, how far it has penetrated. The anatomical extent (progression, staging ) of cancer is often assessed according to three " TNM " criteria : T-tumor, N-nodes, M-metastases; the higher the number, the greater the range and propagation :
T- extent of the primary tumor: T0 (no signs of primary tumor), T1 (tumor up to 2 cm in size), T2 (2-4 cm), T3 (tumor larger than 4 cm), T4 (larger tumor growing into other structures).
N - presence and extent of infiltration in regional lymph nodes: N0 (no infiltration in nodes), N1 (metastasis in one node, <3cm), N2 (bilateral metastases <6cm), N3 (metastases> 6cm). Alternatively, N2 indicates 2-4 and N3 more than 4 metastases in regional nodes. There are different T and N numbering conventions according to the type and location of the tumor.
M- presence of distant metastases: M0- without metastases, M1 - occurrence of distant metastases.
    Tumor TNM classification is not used for hematological and lymphatic malignancies (leukemia, lymphomas), which are not localized but diffuse.
    A simpler classification of the progression is into four stages of cancer, also called FIGO classification ( Federation International of Gynecology and Obstetrics ) :
Stage I. - a smaller tumor site with local growth, without any dissemination (corresponds to T1, N0, M0).
Stage II.- larger tumor with local growth, without dissemination or with minimal regional infiltration (corresponds to T2, N0-1, M0).
Stage III . - large local tumor with regional infiltration (T3-4, N2, M0).
Stage IV. - tumor involvement with infiltration into other tissues or with distant metastases (corresponds roughly to T2-4, N2-4, M1).
    The choice of treatment method and its success depend on all these aspects . In general, the success of therapy is greatest in isolated well-differentiated tumors in the early stages without metastatic infiltration (eg T1-2, N0-1, M0). In the late stages with extensive metastatic infiltration ( generalization ), treatment is difficult and usually not very uccessful ...
Degree of tumor cell differentiation - grading
Tumor tissue cells were formed by mutation and malignant transformation (see above " Carcinogenesis - tumor formation ") of originally normal cells of a certain healthy tissue or organ in which the tumor originated. Thus, they carry many of the properties of these original cells, but some of their other properties differ. The degree of tumor differentiation - the extent to which tumor cells differ from the cells of the normal tissue from which they originated - is referred to as grading (lat. Gradus = state, degree of a particular process ) . If the tumor cells retain some of the properties of the original tissue that they formed when they fell, it is a differentiated tumor. However, tumor cells often lose the properties of the original tissue - an undifferentiated ( anaplastic ) tumor is formed , which is largely autonomous, without binding to the regulatory mechanisms of the original tissue. Tumor grading is sometimes quantified using scores : G1 (well differentiated), G2 (moderately differentiated), G3 (poorly differentiated), G4 (undifferentiated - anaplastic). The prostate ca system uses a multi-level Gleason grading score system (up to 10 degrees).
    The risk of cancer also depends on the size of the tumor cells. Small cell the tumor type usually has rapid infiltrative growth with frequent metastatic dissemination.
Cellular heterogeneity of tumor tissue
In the initial stages, after its formation, the tumor is formed by a substantially homogeneous population of mutated cells that have escaped the regulatory mechanisms of tissue homeostasis and initiated uncontrolled division. In later stages, however, histocytological analyzes have shown that tumor tissue often contains two or more clones of cells with different biological properties - it is already heterogeneous . This is due to the increased fragility of DNA and the genetic instability of tumor cells, which may undergo further mutations upon repeated division . Tumor heterogeneity complicates treatment because different parts of the tumor may have different radiosensitivity . A similar effect is also caused by possible hypoxia of some parts of the tumor (see "6R" below, section "Oxygen effect") .
    The specific type and nature of the tumor can be most reliably determined by histological analysis of a sample of tumor tissue under a microscope. An experienced pathologist usually recognizes the origin and type of tumor cells *) and also whether the tissue is benign or malignant. Histological examination should always precede therapy .
*) However, tumor cells that look similar under a microscope and are histologically classified in the same category may have genetically different causes malignant behavior. Regulatory mechanisms not encoding RNA derived from as yet unexplored "genetic litter", "unnecessary" DNA (it is also mentioned in §5.2, section " DNA, chromosomes, telomeres ") may also be involved . This can significantly complicate the chain of diagnostics ® therapy of cancer.
    A more detailed classification of tumors and their clinical properties is beyond the scope of this physically focused discussion.

Diagnosis of cancer
The success of any therapy depends to a large extent on careful diagnosis - both on the primary examination before treatment and monitoring the response during therapy and subsequent long-term follow-up. This is increasingly true of cancer. Malignant tumors are characterized by some specific characteristics :
- They are structures with a higher density than the surrounding tissue; also for ultrasound they usually show increased echogenicity than the surrounding tissue.
- They consist of metabolically active cells - they usually have increased metabolism.
- They usually have increased vascularization, increased blood flow and increased energy consumption. However, they may also contain hypoxic districts.
- Tumor cells may contain some general cellular antigens on their surface, or they may carry specific antigens.
- In addition, tumor cells may contain some special receptors in their cell membrane.
    All of these features can be used for diagnostic imaging and targeted therapy .
× Primary tumor diagnosis
This involves the detection of the primary tumor, its location and extent before surgery, as well as the detection of possible metastases to determine the progress of further treatment. In addition to visible or tactile superficial and shallow lesions, primary tumor diagnosis is performed primarily using physical imaging methods - X - ray diagnostics (planar, now mainly CT - §3.2), ultrasound sonography , radionuclide gammagraphy (planar, SPECT, now mainly PET - chapter 4 ), NMRI nuclear magnetic resonance . Tumors located on the walls of body cavities and tubes (stomach, intestines, uterus) can be recognized by optical endoscopic methods. . It should be noted that none of the imaging methods alone will determine the malignant nature of the disease! Imaging methods must therefore be combined with biochemical and especially histological methods (see below).
    Because some tumors can produce specific substances (either by the tumor cells themselves or when they interact with the body's immune system), biochemical analytical methods of blood or tissue samples are also important . These are mainly various types of tumor markers - complex organic molecules (mostly protein composition), whose increased expression in the body is the result of the tumor process - such as determining the concentration of PSA in the prostate, or markers CA19-9, CEA, AFP. Recently, the (immuno) histochemical determination of Ki-67 antigen (or MKI67 weighing 360 kDa; the name comes from a study in Kiel, Kiel - clone 67 in bowl 96) , which is associated with cell proliferation - with ribosomal DNA transcription. Furthermore, determination of the apoptotic gene p53 (or its mutation) or the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 . Or cytological examination by flow cytometry .
"Molecular" gammagraphic imaging  
Most imaging methods provide only morphological-anatomical information on the presence, size and shape of tissue, differing in density from the environment. In the CT and NMRI images, we show the tumor mass, which with its density or proton density and relaxation times T1, T2 differs from the surrounding tissue, but we do not capture whether there are viable and proliferating tumor cells in the displayed anomalous tissue . Although gammagraphy (scintigraphy) does not excel in spatial resolution, it captures the functional metabolic properties of lesions - blood circulation, metabolism, drainage and other functions of tissues and organs - at the " molecular-biochemical " level (see §4.9.6 " Oncological radionuclide diagnostics ") . In particular PET display distribution ¹⁸F-fluoro-deoxyglucose (FDG), or ¹⁸ F-3-fluoro-3-deoxy-thymidine (FLT), or ¹⁸ F-fluorocholine, provides contrast images of viable and proliferating tumor lesions.

Example of PET / CT scintigraphy with 18 FDG in a patient with lymphoma.     PET images show multiple foci of increased glucose metabolism in the lymph nodes of the neck, left axilla, mediastinum, retroperitoneum, pelvis and groin, indicating viable tumor neoplasia.     Physiologically, 18-FDG deposited in the brain, in the hollow of the kidney, bladder, light diffusion in the liver and spleen, the variable is the accumulation in the myocardium     The transversal section is separately shown significant bearing on nadklièku (indicated by arrows) to assess the metabolic accumulation through SUV values [g / ml] :       The SUVmax of the bearing in the supernatant is 11.5, with the reference SUVmax liver 2.9 and the mediastinum 1.4. (PET / CT images were taken by Martin Havel, MD, Ph.D., head of the PET / CT KNM FN Ostrava department )

This method is also suitable for monitoring the response of tumor tissue to radiotherapy , as it displays metabolically active tumor tissue, in contrast to inactivated cells; it is thus possible to monitor the "success" of the therapy. Among other things, it is able to recognize tumor recurrence (with proliferating cells) from other structures, necrotic or connective tissue. The ¹⁸ F-FMISO and ¹⁸ F-FETNIM radioindicators show cellular hypoxia , which is important for tumor angiogenesis and for planning radiotherapy (radiosensitivity, oxygen effect - see below " Physical and radiobiological aspects of radiotherapy ").
    
       Normal whole-body scintigram bone multiple metastases (breast ca) in the skeleton
    To display bone metastasis, at an early stage of infiltration, proves best bone scintigraphy (whole-body scintigraphy in PA and AP, with eventually. Targeted SPECT images of suspicious sites) after osteotropic radiopharmaceuticals, which are phosphate complexes whose accumulation reflects increased osteoblastic activity in response to tumor bone destruction. Planar whole-body scintigraphy of the skeleton is useful to supplement with a combined SPECT / CT image with image fusion, to specify the anatomical location of the lesions. In thyroid cancer, the diagnosis is based on scintigraphy after application of radioiodine ¹³¹ I.
    Labeled peptides that bind to peptide receptors on the surface of some types of tumor cells are mainly used in neuroendocrine tumors containing somatostatin receptors (the cyclic peptide somatostatin is a hormonal substance that has a inhibitory effect on the production of certain hormones, especially growth; soma) . = body, body, statizo = stand, stop ) . An artificial somatostatin analogue, octreotide , labeled with indium - ¹¹¹ In-pentetreotide (OctreoScan), or ⁶⁸ Ga -DOTATOC for PET scintigraphy is used to visualize the respective tumors and to predict the effect of somatostatin analog therapy.. The logical sequence of diagnostics using these radioindicators is their labeling with therapeutic radionuclides with application for radioisotope biologically targeted radiotherapy, see below " Radioisotope therapy ", section " Radionuclide therapy of tumors and metastases ".
    In addition, some non-specific indicators of tumors are used, the increased accumulation of which in tumor tissue is based on their ability to penetrate pathologically altered permeability of walls and capillaries and bind within viable cells. Used ^{99 m} Tc-MIBI and tetrofosmin mainly in lymphomas and mammary tumor (mamoscintigrafie). In oncological diagnostics, gallium scintigraphy (mostly planar whole-body imaging, supplemented with possibly SPECT images) with⁶⁷ Ga-citrate. Chemically, Ga ions are analogs of Fe ions, bind to the transport protein transferrin, and accumulate in proliferating tumor tissues, particularly lymphomas. Gallium scintigraphy is now abandoned and replaced by PET scintigraphy with ¹⁸ FDG. Other scintigraphic examinations, such as dynamic scintigraphy of the kidneys and liver, can also be inferred indirectly from tumor processes.
    If anomalous tissue (neoplasm) that could be of tumor origin is found by imaging or other examination methods, histological examination must be performed : by biopsya small sample of tissue is taken and then examined under a microscope. Histological examination is also performed on "suspicious" tissues removed during surgery. According to the shape, size and other characteristics of the cells, it is usually possible to distinguish whether it is a benign or malignant tissue and what kind or. the tumor cells are (as mentioned above). All this macroscopic and microscopic diagnostic information determines the optimal way to treat cancer.
× Diagnostics for planning cancer therapy
If the primary diagnosis of cancer is confirmed, the stage of preparation of therapy begins - a decision on the basic strategy and methodology of therapy: whether it will be a surgical solution, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, respectively. about what combinations (see "Cancer therapy" below). If radiotherapy is planned, X-ray CT, NMRI and gamma (especially PET) images can be used to determine the exact location and extent of the tumor site and to plot the areas of interest (ROI) of the irradiated volume - GTV, CTV and finally PTV in the irradiation plan (see below the section " Planning radiotherapy'). The base is now used CT images, respectively. NMRI but these mainly reflect morphological page, but do not capture the behavior of biological tissue. It is therefore useful to also gamagrafické views, especially PET images of the distribution of ¹⁸ FDG or ¹⁸ FLT, respectively. ¹⁸ F- By analyzing these PET images (eg by determining SUV levels - see §4.2, section " Scintigraphic image quality and detectability of lesions "), we can determine the " Biological Target Volume " ( BTV ) of tumor tissue formed by viable proliferating cells. transfer of these images to the radiotherapy planning system and computer image fusion (CT, NMRI) + PET we can thenspecify the volume of the target lesion, especially CTV for IMRT radiotherapy. According to the distribution of tumor cell viability, we can further modulate the dose within the tumor site and increase (escalation, boost) doses to risk areas within the tumor.
l Predicting the response to cancer therapy
Predicting the biological response to planned treatment is a very difficult task in medicine in general. In cancer therapy, certain basic information can already be obtained from the results of primary imaging and histological diagnostics. However, there are ways to directly assess the specific behavior of tumor tissue for the planned type of treatment using gamma imaging methods , especially PET.
l Monitoring the distribution of cytostatics and monoclonal antibodies
The success of chemotherapy depends, among other things, on whether the cytostatics or monoclonal antibodies used accumulate (uptake) sufficiently in the tumor foci. Nuclear medicine can be used to predict the chemotherapeutic effect. Methods for radionuclide labeling of some chemotherapeutics have been developed : after "trial" diagnostic application of a small amount of such labeled radioindicator, we can display its distribution and assess how selectively it is taken up in tumor tissue (as well as in healthy tissues that could be undesirably loaded) - in this way, the respective chemotherapeutic agent will be taken up during the actual therapeutic application. A similar "trial" diagnostic application of a smaller amount of g- radioindicator can be used in radioisotope therapy(see " Radioisotope Therapy " below) .
l Imaging Dendritic Cell Migration
One of the basic preconditions for the success of immunotherapy with dendritic cells activated by antigens of a particular tumor tissue (see "Cancer Therapy" below, " Immunotherapy " section) is their migration to peripheral lymph nodes and then to the tumor locus. If we label these activated dendritic cells before their re-application to the body using a suitable radioindicator ( ¹¹¹ In-oxin is tested), while maintaining their viability, we can scintigraphically map their migration to the lymph nodes after their application.
    The predictive role of imaging cell apoptosis is discussed in the following paragraph.
× Monitoring the biological response to cancer therapy
In addition to the primary diagnosis, it is desirable to monitor how successful the therapy is and what its side effects are on healthy tissues, organs and the whole organism. In terms of time relation to therapy, monitoring of biological response can be divided into prediction of biological effect before therapy (mentioned above) or at the beginning of therapy, monitoring of early response during therapy and monitoring of late response and overall long-term development disease after treatment. To assess the late tumor response, the basis for monitoring the tumor site in CT or NMRI images - a comparison of the size (volume) of the displayed tumor lesion before and after therapy to assess the reduction of tumor mass. However, CT and NMRI images capture only the morphological situation , not the biological development of tumor tissue and the metabolic activity of cells - we do not recognize in them what part of the depicted lesion of different density is formed by viable tumor cells and what part by necrotized or connective tissue. It is therefore useful to use "molecular" gammagraphy using SPECT and PET methods to reliably monitor the tumor response. These are mainly the already mentioned images of the ¹⁸ FDG or ¹⁸ distributionFLT, performed before and after therapy (or during therapy), on which possibly we compare SUV values. Molecular gamma imaging allows the visualization of important factors influencing the response of tumors to therapy. Another "line" - radiobiological modeling - is the assessment of the radiotherapeutic effect using the quantities TCP, NTCP, UTCP, discussed below in the section " Prediction of the radiotherapeutic effect - the probability of cure of a TCP tumor and damage to normal NTCP tissue ".
    Immediately after the end of radiotherapy, no macroscopic change can be detected in the irradiated tumor - the changes take place first at the molecular level. Only a few weeks to months apart, these nitrocellular processes result in the extinction of most of the cells in the tumor population, which can only be accompanied by observable morphological changes.
l Early tumor response - imaging of cell apoptosis
However, functional molecular imaging in gammagraphy provides other unique possibilities. Radioindicators have been developed to monitor one of the main radiobiological mechanisms of cancer therapy (both radiotherapy and chemotherapy): cell apoptosis . In cell apoptosis (see §5.2, section " Effect of radiation on cells ", section "Cell apoptosis") in the early phase, among other things, irreversible membrane depolarization occurs , the detection of phospholipids on the cell surface, increased permeability of the plasma membrane, later in the later phase the integrity of the cell wall is violated and finally the cells disintegrate and phagocytose. It is in the early phase of apoptosis that the radiopharmaceutical shows an affinity for apoptotic cells *): they either bind to phospholipids on the surface or penetrate the cell membrane and accumulate in the cytoplasm of apoptotic cells. The result is a selective accumulation of radioindicator in apoptotic cells and tissues, while they hardly enter in tissues formed by normal viable cells or necrotic tissues.
 
By gammagraphic imaging of the distribution of these radioindicators (it is appropriate to use dynamic gammagraphy - time factor of accumulation) we obtain positive images of those places where apoptosis occurs most intensively - whether due to irradiation, cytotoxic substances or ischemia. By molecular imaging of the distribution of cell apoptosis, we can monitor the very early response of cells and tissues to therapy (radiotherapy or chemotherapy), already at the beginning and during therapy. It basically allows the prediction of the tumor response : we apply "experimentally" one or two fractions and on gammagraphic images we can assess whether the target tissue is sufficiently intense apoptosis, or. whether there are regions of apoptotic resistance in the heterogeneous tumor. Early imaging of apoptosis can play a significant role in biologicalindividual (" personalized ") therapy of a particular patient.
*) Three types of radioindicators of apoptosis are in the stage of laboratory development and preclinical studies (see also §4.8 " Radionuclides and radiopharmaceuticals for scintigraphy "):
- Protein ^99m Tc-Annexin V (for SPECT imaging) - binds to phospholipids on the surface of apoptotic cells;
- ¹⁸ F-ML-10 [2- (5-Fluoro pentyl) -2-methyl malonic acid] - a small molecule that penetrates the wall of apoptotic cells and accumulates in their cytoplasm. Approx. 400MBq is applied.
- Peptide ¹⁸ F-CP18 [triazole-containing pentapeptide] - maps Caspase-3 activity, accumulates in apoptotic cells.

Combination of diagnostics and therapy - teranostics
New diagnostic imaging methods, especially molecular imaging in nuclear medicine, allow to integrate individual (personalized) diagnostics and targeted therapy (or prevention) of serious diseases into a common field, for which the name teranostics (created composition names: tera pie + diag Linkers => teranostika expires. Theranostics ). Scintigraphy makes it possible to determine the concentrations of biologically active substances directly at the sites of their targeted action, which enables optimal and individual dosing, with the possibility of predicting effects and monitoring the results of therapy - it is discussed in more detail in §4.9, section " Teranostics ".

Cancer therapy
In terms of goal and effectiveness, we generally distinguish between two types of treatment: Curative therapy (Latin cura = treatment ) with the aim of complete cure of cancer, especially in the localized stage. In more severe and advanced cases, palliative therapy (Latin pallium = mantle ) , alleviating and slowing down the course of the disease and its difficulties. In terms of time sequence, we also recognize two procedures: Induction therapy - initial treatment to achieve remission of the disease. After this primotherapy (possibly also simultaneously), adjuvant therapy is often applied - auxiliary, supportive or securing treatment (lat.adiuvo = support, help ) , especially to reduce the risk of recurrence due to possible microarray in the vicinity of the original tumor.
  The treatment of cancer is currently based on three main methods: surgery , chemotherapy and radiotherapy , and these three main therapeutic approaches are often combined - multimodal treatment . In the surgical treatment of cancer, physical removal is performed - resection or ablation (lat. Ablatio = removal, delay )tumor tissue. It is desirable to remove not only the primary tumor with the "safety margin", but also, if possible, other tissues into which the tumor cells could be infiltrated: these are mainly the surrounding lymph nodes located in the lymphatic "basin" of the tumor location (see also above). §3.5, passage " Radiation-guided surgery - sentinel nodes ") . In addition to classical surgical techniques, radiofrequency ablation and stereotactic ablative radiosurgery SRS ( sterotactic radiosurgery ) are also used - see the " Stereotactic radiotherapy " section .
  For non-surgical treatment of cancer, we would ideally need some "magic bullets" that would penetrate the body in a non-invasive manner, target and destroy only the tumor cells, while maintaining undamaged healthy surrounding tissue. Because tumor tissue is made up of cells that are not very different from the healthy cells of the surrounding tissues, we do not have such an ideal and selective "shot": anti-tumor cell treatment will always more or less affect some healthy cells, tissues and organs. However, there are certain physical and biological factors that at least partially promote the targeted destruction of tumor cells and minimize damage to healthy tissues.
  In terms of the place of action in the body, we can divide the therapy of cancer into two methodological approaches :
l Local tumor control , in which we try to stop tumor growth and destroy cells in a particular tumor site of known location and extent. It is performed mainly by the method of radiotherapy - targeted delivery of a high radiation dose to the tumor site. This approach is effective for well-defined tumors of small or medium size, without distant metastases.
l System therapy carried out by applying suitable drugs to the body which enter the tumor foci and stop the proliferation or kill the tumor cells there. These include chemotherapy with cytostatics and biological therapy, and in part targeted radionuclide therapy. System operation has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is the action on multiple tumor foci and hidden metastases, the presence and location of which we sometimes do not even know. The disadvantage is the side effects on healthy cells and tissues. Systemic therapy is chosen in cases of larger cancers with metastatic infiltration. And also as an adjuvant therapy to reduce the risk of recurrence and metastasis.
  Below, the methods of systemic and targeted chemotherapy and biological treatment will be briefly described below, followed by the methods of targeted radiotherapy in more detail. using physical and radiobiological aspects.
Chemotherapy and biological treatment
Under chemotherapy generally means treating diseases by administering chemicals - drugs that are the product of chemical synthesis or isolated from natural materials (especially plants) - and that produce the desired organism (bio) chemical reactions. Chemotherapy of cancer is most often performed using cytostatics - substances that stop or inhibit the growth and division of cells (Greek: kytos = cavity, cell, staticos = stopping ). Their preferential antitumor effect is due to the fact that they act primarily on rapidly dividing cells. However, they also affect healthy physiologically dividing cells in the body, which leads to undesirable side effects. A number of cytostatics are known to act by different mechanisms and at different stages of the cell cycle. There are two basic mechanisms of action of cytostatics :
1. Action on DNA , which disrupts cellular function, prevents replication, can be evaluated by cell cycle control nodes as irreparable damage ® activation of the internal signaling pathway of apoptosis (in this respect the mechanism is similar to ionizing radiation).
2. Effects on other cellular structures, especially microtubules, which violates the very act of cell division - it acts as a " mitotic poison ". The cells are thus inactivated , they cannot divide further, they undergo apoptosis either directly or following a "mitotic catastrophe" (see §5.2, passage " Mechanisms of cell death ").
    More four distinct mechanisms of action of cytostatics by which these substances are decomposed into :
l Alkylating agents - are reacted with bases in the DNA, e.g. guanine, the alkylation of - transferring a carbon radical group C _2n H _{2n + 1} ( alkyl ). This leads to DNA cleavage or the formation of a two-stranded junction. This damage to DNA inactivates cells, prevents them from dividing (DNA strands cannot unravel and separate), and ultimately leads to apoptosis . A cytostatic effect has long been observed with nitrogen mustard analogues . From this group, chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide or ifosfamide are used (the metabolite oxycyclophosphamide formed in the nucleus has its own cytostatic effect ), as well as fludarabine and bendamustine . Platinum cytostatics
also belong to this group . The longest used cytostatic of this species is cisplatin (cis- [PtCl ₂ (NH₃ ) ₂ ]), an inorganic molecule that binds to guanine bases in a DNA molecule; more recent are the organic compounds carboplatin and oxaliplatin , where platinum atoms are attached to cyclic ("aromatic") hydrocarbons.
l Microtubule inhibitors - react with microtubules in cells, prevent the formation of a mitotic spindle - mitotic poisons . These are two types of chemicals that have opposite mechanisms of microtubular action, but result in similar cytotoxic effects:
- yew terpenides - taxanes . The alkaloids paclitaxel (contained in yew Taxus brevifolia ) and docetaxel (from yew Taxus braccata) are used , which stabilize microtubule polymers (inhibition of microtubule depolymerization) and prevent chromosome separation during anaphase.
- vinca alkaloids - vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine , which bind to tubulin and prevent its polymerization into microtubules.
l Antimetabolites blocking the synthesis of purine and pyrimidine DNA bases required for cellular replication. Substances with a structure similar to purines and pyrimidines - fluoropyrimidines , especially methotrexate or 5-fluorouracil preparations are used (5-FU). More recently, the 5-FU precursor, capecitabine (capecitabine), is preferably used , from which the active substance 5-fluorouracil is formed by enzymatic transformations only in the body, preferably in tumor tissue (enzyme thimidine phosphorephilase , which participates in the final phase of inactive capecitabine conversion). -FU, is contained in tumor cells usually in a significantly higher concentration than in cells of healthy tissue - selective effect) .
l S-phase cell cycle topoisomerase inhibitors prevent the development of the DNA double helix during the replication process (in which the enzyme topoisomerase is involved ). This leads to the induction of single-stranded DNA breaks that can cause cell death. The original substance of this kind was camptothecin , an alkaloid isolated from the Chinese tree Camptotheca acuminata . However, its synthetic derivatives topotecan and irinotecan have more suitable pharmacological properties .
l Antitumor antibiotics are initially drug inhibiting growth and reproduction of microorganisms, therefore, when used in the treatment of infectious diseases, as well as antifungal agents and the like. They are secondary metabolites of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi), many of which are now prepared artificially (by synthetic or semi-synthetic methods). As most of them contain in their chemical structure several groups of cyclic hydrocarbons ("benzene nuclei") characteristic of anthracene, they are also called anthracycline antibiotics . In addition to the antibiotic effect of some of these substances, an immunosuppressive effect and a cytostatic , antitumor, antiproliferative effect were also found . The mechanism of the cytostatic effect is probably binding to DNA - their molecules have the ability to be incorporated between DNA base pairs; DNA breaks occur, intercalation bonds are formed with a transcription disorder (tight connection of both strands of DNA prevents its copying before cell division and transcription into RNA), DNA breaks down (the effect is similar to that of radiation or alkylating cytostatics). The enzyme topoisomerase is also blocked, which is involved in changes in the spatial arrangement of DNA during replication prior to cell division; when it is blocked, the individual parts of the DNA that break down do not come together. An example is doxorubicin , bleomycin, epirubicin, idarubicin, mitomycin C .
    This group also includes, in part, rapamycin , originally isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus discovered in soil on Easter Island Rapa Nui ; it is also called sirolimus (lat. siro = pit dug in the soil, limus = mud, sludge ) . It ranks among the macrolide   antibiotics that block protein synthesis in microorganisms by binding in ribosomes. Due to its immunosuppressive effects, it is used in transplants as protection against adverse immune reactions that can lead to transplant rejection. By inhibiting the protein kinase ( mTOR *), it blocks a number of intracellular processes, leading to a decrease in cell proliferative activity. It prevents cells from moving from the G1 phase of the cell cycle to the S phase, causing cell cycle arrest. It increases the sensitivity of tumor cells to radiotherapy and the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Rapamycin thus also belongs to the group of kinase inhibitors listed below , where its new derivatives temsirolimus and everolimus are used .
*) Rapamycin, mTOR
mTOR (mammalian Target Of Rapamycin ) - this very misleading name comes from the fact that the relevant protein kinase was first discovered when rapamycin was applied to the breast. An alternative name is " mechanistic target of rapamycin ". It was later shown that mTOR also works in other types of tumor cells. The PI3K / Akt / mTOR signaling cascade is significantly involved in the process of carcinogenesis, and its inhibition may be an important factor in cancer therapy.
l Antioxidants are known primarily as cancer prevention. However, it has been shown that some antioxidants (such as reveratrol, genistein, baikalein ) damage DNA and kill dividing cells. This could be used in anticancer therapy. Their advantage is that, despite their genotoxicity, they do not have mutagenic effects. So far, it is in the stage of biological research.
l Bisphosphonates act as inhibitors of osteoclastic bone resorption. They can therefore be used for the secondary treatment of bone tumors, especially metastases, where they act primarily against bone erosion; it is not a cytostatic. The most effective nitrogen bisphosphonate is mainly zoledronic acid . In combination with eg docetaxel, there is an additive synergistic antitumor effect - potentiation of the cytostatic effect.
    Individual cytostatics are sometimes combined eg FOLFOX (oxaliplatin + 5-fluorouracil + folic acid), XELOX (capecitabine + oxaliplatin), FOLFIRI (5-fluorouracil + irinotecan) and others. A common disadvantage of classical cytostatics is their systemic non-specific effect - they act not only on tumor cells, but also on healthy physiologically dividing cells. This leads to a number of often serious side (toxic) side effects. Therefore, a new variant of targeted "transport" of a suitable cytostatic preparation directly to cancer sites is being tested, using microcapsules up to 5 m in size.m. Such tiny capsules, formed from a suitable organic substance and carrying a cytostatic inside, pass through the vascular system and the fine blood capillaries after application. They can be monitored sonographically or by magnetic resonance imaging; the moment they reach the tumor, they can be disrupted by an ultrasound wave, releasing the cytostatic at the required place - in the tumor.

Chemical structure of some cytostatics used in chemotherapy of cancer

Targeted biological therapy
In recent years, knowledge of molecular biology and genetics has developed rapidly , revealing, among other things, complex mechanisms of cellular communication and specific molecules that are important for malignant cell transformation. These could become the target of specific therapeutic interventions: to identify and target certain structures in tumor cells in order to prevent further proliferation of tumor tissue. Targeted biological treatment is based on these mechanisms , the strategy of which is directed against selected types of molecules and their signaling pathways involved in the malignant behavior of cells of the respective tumor types. Together with more effective therapy, these procedures make it possible to reduce undesirable side effects Currently, the main interest is focused on the so-called growth factors (stimulating cell growth and division) and their receptors, especially EGFR, HER2 and VEGF (see below).
    A new class of drugs is being developed that selectively block the activity of these oncogenic proteins, with minimal damage to normal cells. These are mainly two groups of substances with different mechanisms of action :
l Monoclonal antibodies
are special proteins from the group of immunoglobulins (or fragments thereof) , which are obtained from a cloned population of one species of activated B-lymphocyte from the plasma of an immunized organism. The monoclonal antibody therefore has precisely defined properties and specifically binds to the respective receptors. Some monoclonal antibodies seek to approach an ideal therapeutic - a " magic arrow " that would only target target pathological cells and have no detrimental effects on other healthy cells. However, this cannot yet be achieved 100% ..! ..
Structure of monoclonal antibodies
The molecular weight of monoclonal antibodies is around 150 kDa. The structure of immunoglobulin protein molecules is often schematically represented by the shape of the letter " Y " (in the figure on the left - a). The branched part - arms - consists of two heterodimers, it is formed by four polypeptide parts, arranged in two mirror-identical pairs of " heavy " and " light " chains. They are internally linked by a disulfide bond (SS). Light and heavy chains contain constant and variable regions. The variable regions, located at the ends, contain short amino acid sequences (sometimes called "hepervariable") , antibodies. Therefore, these arms are referred to as Fab ( Fragment antigen binding ) . The "foot" in the antibody scheme consists of two heavier chains, referred to as Fc ( crystallizing fragment ) . This constant region of Fc is responsible for the effector functions of the antibody (interaction with T-lymphocytes, macrophages) - activation of systems leading to the destruction of target cells.
Preparation of monoclonal antibodies 
Since we cannot cultivate directly the desired clones of activated B-lymphocytes efficiently enough, the preparation of monoclonal antibodies iscomplex biochemical technology. Myeloma cells (otherwise known as tumor cells of myeloma , a hematooncological disease of the bone marrow caused by uncontrollable proliferation of myeloma cells) have proven to be very suitable "auxiliary carriers" for the preparation of monoclonal antibodies , which, due to their unlimited replication capabilities and longevity in vitro. Thus, the formation of these "helper" myeloma cells is first induced in experimental laboratory animals. These are then harvested and cultured in vitro. Meanwhile, in another laboratory animal, an injection of a particular antigen elicits an immune response with B-cell activation.and subsequent production of antibodies. These B-lymphocytes are taken from the lymphatic system (usually a spleen sample) of the animal used and then fused in vitro to a colony of myeloma cells. From this fusion, hybrid cells (called hybridomas ) are formed , which retain the properties of both myeloma cells and the desired B-cell clone, divide rapidly, and produce B-cell antibodies used in the fusion. Using special separation methods, only hybridomas producing only one desired antibody clone - a monoclonal antibody - are selected from them .
    This ingenious biotechnology was first developed in 1975 by G.F..Kohler and C. Milstein in the Molecular Biology Laboratories of the University of Cambridge and the Institute of Immunology in Basel (for this method they received the Nobel Prize in 1984).

Monoclonal antibodies . a, b) Schematic representation and illustration of the basic structure. c) Mouse monoclonal antibody. d, e, f) Chimeric, humanized and human antibody.

  The laboratory animals used in the process of preparing monoclonal antibodies are almost always mice, so that the mouse monoclonal antibody (c) is primarily generated . For its human use can sometimes lead to undesirable immune reactions - immunogenicity due to the development of human-anti-mouse antibodies HAMA ( Human Anti-Mouse Antibodies ). On the one hand, this prevents the binding of the monoclonal antibody to the target antigen and, on the other hand, can also lead to immune anaphylactic reactions. Therefore, there is an effort to replace parts of the molecules (which do not encode antigen binding regions) with human immunoglobulin sections - to humanize antibodies using sophisticated biochemical-genetic methods ("genetic engineering ") . From the original hybridonové line producing mouse antibodies that target, the RNA preparation and further reaction catalyzed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase, a complementary cRNA -. polymerase reactions were propagated segment encoding the antigen binding site. This genetic sequence are replaced The corresponding new gene is inserted into a suitable recipient mammalian cell, which then synthesizes a monoclonal antibody with a predominant human immunoglobulin content.. The humanized monoclonal antibody has constant regions from a human immunoglobulin, and only the variable region encoding antigenic specificity is derived from a murine antibody. The antibodies thus transformed have the desired antigenic specificity and show only minimal immunogenicity. In this way, chimeric (cross) antibodies (content of about 60% human antibody), humanized (content of more than 90% human antibody) or 100% human antibody are generated - in Fig. D), e), f). The more "animal" the antibody, the greater the risk of immunogenicity can be expected. Humanization of monoclonal antibodies, on the other hand, leads to a reduction in unwanted immunogenicity, but on the other hand also to a possible reduction in their efficacy ...
Antibody fragments 
The larger the protein molecule, the slower and more difficult it is to penetrate the target tissues. Therefore, instead of "whole" antibodies, suitable antibody fragments are prepared , containing only regions with preserved antigenic specificity. Most commonly, these are Fab´ fragments containing domains necessary for antigen binding, but not the effector-interacting portion of Fc.
Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies 
The nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies is elaborated so that the basic type and the most important properties (targeting) of a specific preparation (antibody) can be identified from the name . The name consists of 4 parts: prefix - designation of the target structure - biological type (origin) - suffix (it is always - mab: m onoclonal a nti b ody ):

Examples are ......, or rituximab , a chimeric monoclonal antibody (-xi-) whose variable portion mediating contact with the tumor cell CD20 antigen (-tu-) is of murine origin and the remainder of the antibody is of human origin.
  In the literature, other more detailed divisions are sometimes given - in the target structure for specific types of tumors ( -co (l) - colon tumor, -go (v) - ovarian tumor, -ma (r) - breast tumor, -me (l ) - melanoma, -neu (r) - nervous system, -pr (o) - prostate tumor, -vi (r) - viruses ..... ), in biological origin other possibilities ( -a- rat, -e - hamster, -i- primates, ..... ); however, we do not encounter these names in practice ... In some preparations, in addition to the monoclonal antibody itself, the name is also given biochemically conjugated substances (eg ibritumomab tiuxetan - ......).
Biological effects of monoclonal antibodies 
In order to produce the desired effect (therapeutic or diagnostic) , the antibody must first reach the target tissues and cells. Monoclonal antibodies are administered intravenously by slow infusion of the solution. .... Monoclonal antibodies have relatively large molecules with masses around 150kDa, min. 100 times larger than conventional cytostatics. Therefore, they have slower distribution kinetics and are less difficult to penetrate tumor tissue, with slow diffusion through the interstitial space. Their distribution in the tumor is usually inhomogeneous, especially in larger tumors.
    Monoclonal antibodies have the ability to react with the particular antigen against which they are targeted. If the target structure is a receptor ligand, this ligand is neutralized. If the target structure is a receptor on the surface of the cell membrane, the signaling pathway associated with it is blocked. Many monoclonal antibodies thus have inhibitory effects on certain ligands and signaling pathways (or sometimes stimulatory ones) .
    A frequent goal of treatment is the elimination of a certain type of cells - the depletion process. The condition for binding to target cells is the presence of appropriate receptors. The antigen-binding complementarity of an antibody is given by the variable regions at the ends of the Fab chains, while the fixed Fc region mediates subsequent effector functions on target cells. After successful binding of the antibody, three different mechanisms of the resulting cytocidal effect can occur :
- Activation of complements - membrane glycoproteins C1-C9, which by their proteolytic effects attack cytoplasmic cell membranes and cause their penetration . The cell dies and the released chemicals cause an inflammatory reaction with the accumulation of leukocytes (cf. §5.2, passage " Mechanisms of cell death i ") .
- Induction of phagocytosis - fixed Fc region of bound antibody(lower part of the letter " Y " in the scheme) specifically binds to the Fc receptor of some types of leukocytes, especially macrophages, which thus recognize and subsequently phagocytose tumor cells.
- Induction of apoptosis after antibody binding to the cell surface, with destruction of mitochondria and proteolytic caspase chain (detailed explanation in §5.2., Passage " Apoptosis "; in the picture on the top right " External signaling pathway of apoptosis ") .
Immunogenicity of Monoclonal Antibodies 
Monoclonal antibodies, as immune-active agents, can produce " anti-antibody antibodies " when administered to the body , which can neutralize their effect. in addition to causing adverse anaphylactic effects - discussed above. Immunogecality most often occurs in murine antibodies (HAMA, in about 10%), rarely in chimeric antibodies, very rarely in humans. Before using murine antibodies, it is therefore desirable to perform a laboratory biochemical test for HAMA antibodies, or positivity should then be a contraindication to the use of these products.
Use of monoclonal antibodies 
In addition to oncology (see below), monoclonal antibodies are also used against autoimmune diseases, organ transplant rejection, inflammatory diseases. Also as antibacterial and antiviral.
    Monoclonal antibodies are mainly used in oncology for self-caretargeted biological therapy for cancer (see below). In addition, cytotoxic substances or radioisotopes can bind to them, which only "guide" these antibodies, approach or bind them to the target cells - antibody conjugates with suitable effector components are formed .
Radiolabeled antibodies - radioimmunoconjugates 
An important new method of biologically targeted therapy of cancer is the combination of targeted binding of monoclonal antibodies with the biological effects of ionizing radiation from radionuclides . Radioimmunoconjugates have a beta or alpha radionuclide bound to a biologically targeted radionuclide therapy in an antibody molecule - see below "Radioisotope therapy with open emitters . " crossfire " has a radius of several tens of cell diameters (see below obr.3.6.8 in " radioisotope therapy "). They are therefore effective in the neighboring cells which have insufficient expression of a tumor antigen.
Some monoclonal antibodies labeled with a gamma or positron radionuclides,are used in nuclear medicine as radioindicators in scintigraphic diagnostics- §4.8 " Radionuclides and radiopharmaceuticals for scintigraphy ", passage " Immunoscintigraphy ". It is mainly in tumor diagnosis , but also, for example, in the diagnosis of inflammatory foci using antigranulocyte monoclonal antibodies.
Monoclonal Antibodies in Oncology 
A number of monoclonal antibodies are used in oncology therapy , some of which are briefly listed :
Cetuximab - a chimeric monoclonal antibody that competitively binds to the extracellular domain of epidermal growth factor EGFR (HER1) and inhibits the binding of other possible tumor growth activators; panitumumab has similar effects .  
Trastuzumab ( herceptin ) acts as a monoclonal antibody against HER2 (Human Epidermal Receptor), binding to the extracellular domain of HER2 and thereby blocking epidermal growth factor access to its receptor; this prevents activation of the signaling pathway of cell processes and tumor growth (HER2 - positive). Pertuzumab , which binds to the dimerization domain of HER2 and thus prevents its dimerization with other HER receptors,has similar effects. The combination of trastuzumab + pertuzumab is being tested to increase the effect of HER2-signaling blockade (possibly + docetaxel), which shows synergistic activity. The combination of herceptin with aromatase inhibitors (such as anastrozole or ietrozole) has also been tested in hormone-dependent tumors. And in general, herceptin in combination with the chemotherapeutic agents capecitabine or 5-fluorouracil and cisplatin is indicated in various HER2-positive metastatic tumors.
Bevacizumab ( Avastin ) is a humanized monoclonal antibody to Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), which captures circulating VEGF in plasma, thereby inhibiting tumor neoangiogenesis . A frequently used preparation is rituximab- a chimeric monoclonal antibody of the IgG1 type, specifically directed against the CD20 antigen in malignant B-lymphomas.
Ipilimumab is a monoclonal antibody that activates CTLA-4 targeting, where cytotoxic T cells can recognize and destroy tumor cells (it turns off the inhibitory mechanism and allows T cells to function). It is used to treat melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, ca bladder and ca prostate.
Nivolumab is a human IgG4 anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, also acting as a control node inhibitor, that blocks activated T cells from attacking tumor cells. It is also used in malignant melanoma (in combination with ipilumomab ), lung ca and kidney ca.
Atezolizumabacts as an inhibitor of PDL1 programmed cell death ligand. It is mainly used in non-small cell lung ca.
    Another possible mechanism involved in the anti-tumor effect of some monoclonal antibodies is the "labeling" of a cell on the surface of which the relevant receptor is present; the cells thus labeled are then attacked and destroyed by the body's immune processes. The efficacy of monoclonal antibodies in tumor therapy depends on the presence and function of appropriate receptors on tumor cell membranes. If these receptors are scarce, or are dysfunctional or mutated, the antibody is ineffective ...
    Monoclonal antibodies can also be " carriers " to which a suitable chemotherapeutic or radionuclide binds.. The most commonly used radioactive preparation of this species is Ibritumomab Tiuxetan labeled with ⁹⁰ Y ( Zevalin ) for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas; see " Radioisotope Therapy " below, "Radioimmunotherapy" section for more details .
l Mimetic antibodies, Affibody
In addition to "real" monoclonal antibodies, so-called mimetic antibodies are also used - peptides or small proteins (with a molecular weight of about 3-20 kDa), which like antibodies can bind to antigens, but which are structurally not similar to the relevant antibodies (the name comes from the Greek mimesis = mimicry, to imitate, imitate ). The main representative of these substances are the so-called affibodies consisting of three helices with 58 amino acids with a molecular weight of about 6 kDa. Their use is for diagnostic imaging and targeted therapy.
l Kinase inhibitors (thyrosine kinase inhibitors) are substances that block the signaling pathways of certain kinases (one or more), thereby inhibiting cell division and stimulating apoptosis. This can lead to slower tumor growth and attenuation of tumor angiogenesis. Kinases are enzymes (§5.2, section " Cells - basic units of living organisms ", section " Proteins, enzymes, kinases "), which transfer the phosphate group from the adenosine triphosphate ATP to the acceptor, which has an OH group - the phosphorester of the acceptor molecule is formed. The tyrosine kinase transfers the phosphate to the hydroxyl group of the cyclic amino acid tyrosine bound in the protein, thereby activating the protein. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors ( tinibas ) are small molecules that bind to an appropriate site in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to prevent phosphorylation of substances that are part of the intracellular signaling pathways by which a chemical signal captured by a receptor on the cell surface is transmitted to target structures in the cytoplasm or in the core. One of the important targets of biologic therapy is the epidermal growth factor receptor EGFR signaling pathway( Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor ), also known as a human epidermal receptor, Her-1 ( human epidermal receptor 1 ), a transmembrane glycoprotein (molecular weight about 170000). Another kinase that affects the regulation of cell growth, including angiogenesis, is the serine / threonine kinase mTOR ( mammalian target of rapamycin ). Thus, mTOR inhibitors may interact in particular by attenuating angiogenesis.
    Inhibition of kinases involved in oncogenic signaling pathways may suppress the proliferation of a given tumor cell clone. A certain advantage of these substances is that (unlike large protein molecules) they can penetrate cells by passive transport ,so that their activity is not linked to the presence of the respective receptors on the membranes of the tumor cells.
    Gefitinib is a quinazoline derivative that inhibits EGFR growth receptor tyrosine kinase activity (especially in the EGFR activating mutation), with erlotinib having a similar effect . Lapatinib binds to the intracellular portion of the HER2 growth receptor and inhibits its tyrosine kinase activity; it also acts as a dual inhibitor - in addition to HER2, it also acts on the intracellular activity of the HER1 receptor (ie EGFR). Imatinib primarily blocks BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase in some leukemia species; newer and more effective inhibitors of this type are nilotinib and dasatinib
. The multikinase inhibitors sunitinib and sorafenib suppress the kinase activity of platelet-derived growth factor receptors, VEGFR and others (KIT, FLT3, ...) - they act as inhibitors of angiogenesis . For this purpose, the new mTOR kinase inhibitors temsirolimus and everolimus (derivatives of rapamycin - sirolimus mentioned above in the " anthracycline antibiotics " category ), which block the P3K / Akt / mTOR phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase signaling pathway, are also being tested . The kinase inhibitor vemurafenib , which specifically inhibits the V600-mutated form of the B-raf protein, is also being tested ; shows promising results in the treatment of malignant melanoma.
In some cases, it is useful to combine monoclonal antibody therapy with an appropriate tyrosine kinase inhibitor - for example, in a HER2-positive tumor, trastuzumab followed by lapatinib .
l Aptamers (lat. aptus = capable , Greek meros = part ) are short fragments of RNA or DNA (oligonucleotides, peptides; molecular weights 8-12kDa) - specially prepared and sequenced ligands with high binding affinity to specific target molecules. They take on different three-dimensional structures, they are able to bind to different biomolecules (antibodies, growth factors, hormones, enzymes, amino acids). They can act as targeted inhibitors and also as "carriers" suitable therapeutic substances - "escort" aptamers . Their use, so far experimental, is an alternative to monoclonal antibodies. Aptamers can be produced artificially by biochemical methods in a wide range: RNA serves as a "library" of nucleotides, from which ligands of desired properties are prepared by repeated combinations with tumor antigens and selections (SELEX method). The selected aptamers thus formed can then be sequenced and produced artificially by biochemical methods; in this they have an advantage over monoclonal antibodies (which are prepared by immunization). An example is pegaptanib , which binds to the vascular growth factor VEGF and thus prevents it from stimulating angiogenesis (so far used in ophthalmology). The designation of aptamers by radionuclides could be promising - either g- radionuclides for scintigraphic diagnostics, or b or a radionuclides for biologically targeted radionuclide therapy. For example, an anti-tenascin-C aptamer labeled with ^99m Tc and ¹¹¹ In (for glioblastoma), or an Anti-MUC1 aptamer labeled with ^99m Tc or ¹⁸⁶ Re (for breast cancer) is tested.
    Biological treatment of cancer includes several other special procedures :
l Gene therapy of tumors is still in the stage of laboratory development, but its more significant application can be expected in the near future. Two different pathways of gene tumor therapy are being developed:
- A straightforward procedure within tumor cells seeks to "correct" a genetic variation that has led to malignant cell transformation by a targeted change. The difficulty of this approach lies not only in the laboratory biochemical complexity of introducing specific genetic information using a suitable RNA vector and reverse transcriptase, but also in the fact that several different genetic changes (mutations) are involved in the malignant transformation of cells. This is probably not only the changes in known DNA coding sequences, but also in the as yet unexplored "genetic junk", "unnecessary" DNA.
-In an alternative approach, the target of gene therapy is not directly tumor cells, but other cells and tissues that, under the influence of targeted genetic intervention, are modified so that they can begin to produce certain active substances that effectively block tumor growth.
l Telomerase inhibition is so far an experimental method directed against one of the above-mentioned factors of carcinogenesis: overcoming the Hayflick limit of cell division - their immortilization - due to active telomerase acting in tumor cells. Antitelomer vaccination is performed by applying telomerase to the body in order to elicit an immune response that would kill the telomerase in the tumor cells and thus prevent their unrestricted division. Unfortunately, telomerase inhibition also affects other cells, such as hematopoiesis, where telomerase performs its physiological function. Experiments with combined telomerase inhibition together with inhibition of tankyrase to potentiate the effect are also being experimented (telomerase and tankyrase work "synergistically in tandem cooperation"). Therapy based on telomerase inhibition can only be successful where telomerase is active. Recently, however, it has been found that telomerase is not the only factor in the immortilization of tumor cells, but mechanisms of homologous recombination of telomere sequences work similarly (it is discussed in §5.2, part "DNA, chromosomes, telomeres ") . This" bad news "somewhat reduces the promising therapeutic potential of telomerase ...
l Hormone therapy of tumors is based on the fact that some types of tumor cells contain receptors for hormones - they are hormone dependent , their origin and development is dependent on the level of certain hormones.In breast cancer cells there are estrogen receptors, in prostate tumors for androgens.The growth of tumor cells can inhibit hormones with the opposite effect (hormone antagonists) or prevent the synthesis of hormones (castration in the prostate, ovariectomy in the mother ), both methods are often combined, with the possibility of blocking receptors in hormone-dependent forms of tumors (especially breast cancer), which leads to the cessation of tumor cell proliferation. Selective estrogen receptor modulators such as tamoxifen are used for this purpose . Aromatase inhibitors (an enzyme involved in the synthesis of estrogens from testosterone, estradiol is formed) such as anastrazole, ietresol, formestane , also block the production of estrogens.
l Immunotherapy generally represents a targeted intervention into the body's immune system for a therapeutic purpose - to restore, strengthen, or modify the functions of the immune system. Unfortunately, in advanced cancer, the immune system usually does not respond to the tumor cells of one's own body ( immunosuppression ). One of the goals of tumor immunotherapy is to label and "make visible" tumor cells for the body's immune system, which can then "take care" of their destruction. Genetic changes in tumor cells result, among other things, in the emergence of new antigens, different from non-tumor cells. These tumor antigens may become a desirable target for immune responses, but only if we "serve" them properly to the immune system.
    As the vector for the purpose of immune antitumor vaccination are particularly useful group of special cells from white blood cells called dendritic cells of the immune system, with many numerous protrusions on the surface (Greek dendron = tree , the cells have dendrites ) . These cells initiate immune responses, differentiate foreign and the body's own substances (they can recognize various antigens, including tumor cells), they are particles. Subsequently, they mature, exposing on their surface parts of absorbed proteins (in our case tumor antigens) and thus activating T-lymphocytes, which completes the "destructive" immune response involving effector monocytes transforming into macrophages. Dendritic cells can thus become an effective tool for stimulates the body's own immune system to "engage in the fight" against cancer autologous cellular immunotherapy , which

The procedure of anti-tumor immune vaccination consists of several stages : - Sampling of tumor tissue, isolation and culture of tumor line cells; - Collection of peripheral blood, separation of leukocytes and monocytes by leucopheresis; - Growing in vitro cultures of native (immature) dendritic cells; - Activation of dendritic cells by uptake of cells of a given tumor line (their antigens); - From the activated (mature) dendritic cells, which expose tumor antigens on their surface, a final vaccine is prepared, which is applied back to the organism; -Activated dendritic cells migrate to the lymph nodes, where they activate effector T cells; - Activated cytotoxic T-lymphocytes recognize and kill tumor cells ( N ).

Dendritic cells can be obtained by culturing for several days from monocytes extracted from the patient's peripheral blood *). In addition, a sample of tumor tissue is taken . If we then ( in vitro , using disrupted or apoptotic tumor cells) absorb dendritic cells tumor antigens from the tumor tissue and then stimulated them back into the body, they have the ability to stimulate the immune system to "fight" the original tumor cells. . Subsequently, activated effector T cells are released into the tumor site and selectively attack the tumor cells. The method is still in the stage of experimental clinical studies.
*) To obtain a larger number of leukocytes and monocytes, a special sampling separation method called leucopheresis or leukapheresis (Greek leukosis = white , these are white blood cells - leukocytes ; afairesis = take ) is used.: the blood circulates through a centrifugal separation unit, where the leukocytes are separated, while other components of blood (especially plasma) return to the patient's circulation.
    Although tumor cells produce antigens that, in principle, the immune system can use for their identification and subsequent targeted killing by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL), there is an inhibitory mechanism.an antigen associated with the CTLA-4 protein, the binding of which to the CTL receptor shuts down the cytotoxic response. This mechanism, on the one hand, prevents excessive adverse immune reactions (autoimmunity), but on the other hand allows tumor cells to survive. The anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody ipilimumab ( MDX-010 ), which binds to CTLA-4, blocks its inhibitory function and allows CTL to continue to destroy tumor cells, has been shown to enhance anti-tumor CTL immunity .
   Another newly tested method based on the immune system is the blocker protein CD47 - anti-CD47. The CD47 protein is physiologically present on the surface of blood cells and its task is to protect them from its own white blood cells. However, many tumor cells also have the CD47 protein on their surface, which protects them from white blood cells and therefore cannot be destroyed by the immune system. By applying an anti-CD47 blocker , the immune system is stimulated to kill the tumor cells. Although there is also a loss of blood cells, which need to be supplemented ...
    The above-mentioned monoclonal antibodies also belong to the category of immunotherapy . Molecular biological chemotherapy (immunotherapy, monoclonal antibodies) is often suitable to combine with classical cytostatics - to enhance the therapeutic effect. For example, the combination docetaxel is used with trastuzamab , 5-fluorouracil + oxaliplatin (FOLFOX), or 5-fluorouracil + irinotecan (FOLFIRI), with bevacizumab or cetuximab , capecitabine with trastuzumab or lapatinib, and many others. Recently, the application of cytostatics and monoclonal antibodies labeled with therapeutic beta-radionuclides , which represent combined molecular chemo-radiotherapy , has been tested . Some such methods and preparations are mentioned below in the section " Radioisotope therapy ", section " Radionuclide therapy of tumors and metastases " and "Radioimmunotherapy ".
Abscopic effect
in some cases the observed synergistic effect of immunotherapy and radiotherapy. Rarely occurs so. abscopic effect ( i.e. off target - lat. B = outside, away; scopium = t, target angle )when after local radiotherapy certain tumor lesions recede systemically and other lesions that have not been irradiated. Radiotherapy may induce an immunoeffect against further metastases of the same tumor (for more details, see §5.2, passage " Bystander-Abscopal effect ").

Alternative methods
In addition to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, some alternative methods of cancer therapy are sometimes used or tried. We will mention two based on temperature :
¨ Hyperthermia
- local heating of the target tissue to a temperature higher than 43 ° C, causing inhibition of DNA and protein production, together with a reduction in tumor vascularization. Tumor tissues usually respond more sensitively to heat than normal healthy tissues. In healthy (normally perfused) tissue, vasodilation occurs when heated, which removes heat more efficiently through the blood and reduces heating. The vessels formed by neoangiogenesis in the tumor are chaotic, functionally imperfect and possibly compressed with tumor mass. Tumor vessels are not able to effectively regulate blood flow, so when the tumor is heated, vasodilation does not occur and the tumor heats up more than the surrounding healthy tissues. In particular, large and hypoxic tumors, which are less sensitive to radiotherapy, are therefore suitable for the treatment of hyperthermia.
  At temperatures above 43 ° C, denaturation of proteins (including cell membrane proteins and microtubules, causing changes in membrane potentials and ion concentrations) begins to occur , leading to cell death , predominantly by necrosis . In addition, heat stress proteins express HSP heat stress proteins (Heat shock proteins ), the most common is Hsp70, which in addition to its anti-stress effect (bind to a hydrophobic amino acid sequence partially damaged proteins, which allow the correction to the correct spatial arrangement; further promote the degradation of damaged proteins), their "chaperone" activities allow binding to the antigen, and transport to cell membranes, where these antigens are presented (via the transmembrane glycoprotein MHC 1) and thus stimulate the immune system - the formation of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes specific for a given type of tumor. Furthermore, enzymatic cell repair mechanisms (such as excision repair, homologous recombination, non-homologous end-joining - see §5.2, passage "Repair processes ")are heat-sensitive - thermolabile . This can be used for the synergetic effect of combining hyperthermia with radiotherapy or chemotherapy - thermoradiotherapy ( hyperthermic radiotherapy ) or thermochemotherapy .
   Non-invasive heating of the tumor inside the body can be achieved by electromagnetic waves or ultrasound. perspective method of high-intensity focused ultrasound HIFU ( High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound). Focusing of ultrasonic waves is achieved using a specially shaped (concavely curved) transducer. High-intensity ultrasound focuses on the tumor, within which energy is converted into heat. The tissue temperature rises to 65 ° C, during which thermal ablation occurs - the temperature kills the tumor cells, but when properly targeted, does not damage the surrounding healthy tissues. A rapid and short-term increase in local temperature (within 2-3 seconds) destroys the target tissue by coagulation necrosis - we literally "cook" the tumor, while the surrounding structures are not damaged. HIFU therapy is suitable for MRI navigation .
   Furthermore, the hyperthermic method could activate chemotherapeutic drugs directly in tumors. The chemotherapeutic is "wrapped" in heat-sensitive microscopic particles ( liposomes - particles coated with a fat layer) and applied to the bloodstream. At a normal body temperature of about 37 ° C, the particles pass through the blood vessels undisturbed and have no toxic effects on the body. When they enter the tumor in this way, they can be locally heated by the focused HIFU waves to a temperature higher than 42 ° C, at which point the liposome envelope becomes porous and the drug is released directly into the tumor. The therapeutic effect of the drug is thus targeted in the tumor, with the minimization of undesirable side effects in other parts of the body.
¨ Cryotherapy (Greek cryos = cold )
(also called cryosurgery ) consists in the application of very low temperatures in order to destroy the target tissue ( cryodestruction ). It is used in various medical fields (dermatology, ophthalmology, gynecology, surgery) and for the treatment of non-malignant diseases. In oncological indications, it is the destruction of a tumor by freezing using an established freezing probe - a cryocauter , cooled mostly by liquid nitrogen. The rapid freezing of the tissue causes its damage by the formation of ice crystals inside and outside the cells, with subsequent necrosis of the frozen cells. To achieve the desired effect, the target tissue must be cooled to below -20 ° C with a high freezing rate approx. 30 ° C / sec. Slow freezing would dehydrate the cells, which could survive thawing. On the contrary, the subsequent thawing should be much slower so that the cells are exposed for a long time to mechanical damage by recrystallizing ice and also to the toxic action of the intracellular fluid, in which the concentration of salts and ions has risen sharply. The cryotherapy method is used for tumors accessible by direct application of the cryocauter, most often for skin lesions.
 Note: Issues of chemotherapy and other non-radiation methods we have outlined here only briefly and marginally, due to the complexity of the interpretation of the principles and current possibilities of cancer therapy; further details of complex biochemical reactions (often not yet fully explored) in chemotherapy and biological treatment lie beyond the scope of our discussion of radiotherapy , in addition to physically focused ...
Radiotherapy
of cancer is based on the effects of ionizing radiation on living tissue (the mechanisms of these effects are described in more detail in §5.2 " Biological effects of ionizing radiation " ) , where sufficiently high doses of radiation are able to inactivate and kill cells , in this case tumor cells. In tumor tissue, it is necessary to destroy mainly clonogenic stem cells , the unrestricted division of which causes cancer. Radiation damage to the tumor's vascular supply can also play a significant role in stopping tumor growth . Radiotherapy can thus be an effective local (or local-regional) method of cancer therapy (and possibly also some other focal diseases and disorders) .
    The goal of classical radiotherapy is the reproductive sterilization of clonogenic tumor cells by radiation-induced apoptosis. In addition, stereotactic radiotherapy allows for an ablative approach - immediate destruction of cells by necrosis, caused by a high single dose of radiation.
   Radiation eradication of tumor cells can be part of effective curative therapy to completely cure cancer, especially at the localized stage. In more severe and advanced cases, palliative therapy , alleviating and slowing down the course of the disease and its difficulties. After surgical removal of the tumor lesion, the so-calledadjuvant radiotherapy - auxiliary, supportive or securing treatment after surgery, to reduce the risk of recurrence due to possible microarray in the vicinity of the original tumor. In certain cases, preoperative so-called neoadjuvant radiotherapy is used before surgery - to reduce the extent of the tumor (" downstaging ") and thus improve its operability, as well as to reduce the viability of tumor cells and thus reduce the risk of local or metastatic infiltration. may release tumor cells into the environment, lymphatic system and bloodstream). The surgery is then performed about 6 weeks after radiotherapy, when the acute radiation symptoms have disappeared and late changes have not yet occurred (see below "Side effects of radiotherapy - radiotoxicity ") .
    Perioperative (intraoperative) radiotherapy   is rarely used - direct irradiation of the tumor site or its remnant, exposed during surgery. From this point of view, mobile devices with a miniaturized X-ray machine or an electron gun and a target, which is applied to a target lesion (eg a cavity after resection of the tumor itself) and irradiated with low-energy X-rays ( with an energy of several tens of keV) with a high dose and ionization density, which can in principle also be used in laparoscopic operations.
    The majority of this §3.6 will be devoted to radiotherapy of cancer.
Combination chemo-radiotherapy
To improve the results of cancer therapy is useful in some cases both above mentioned therapeutic modalities in combination ( concomitant s - accompanying, additional therapies, a special case of multimodal therapy ). The benefits of simultaneous application of chemotherapy with radiotherapy can be basically of three types :
l Additive effect - the effect of radiotherapy and chemotherapy for the destruction of tumor cells adds up (without direct interdependence). The additive effect of chemotherapy occurs on both the irradiated cells of the target volume and chemotherapy can also cause the elimination and attenuation of micrometastases outside the irradiated volume.
l  Radiosensitizing effect - chemotherapy enhances the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells (increased DNA fragility due to chemically bound cytostatics,inhibition of DNA repair mechanisms, or appropriate time cycle of the cell cycle to a phase more sensitive to radiation, eg G2) - potentiation of radiotherapy. One such cytostatic agent that increases the sensitivity of tumor cells to radiotherapy issirolimus (rapamycin- mentioned above as an anthracycline antibiotic); the combination of sirolimus + radiotherapy is better tolerated in terms of side effects than the combination of radiotherapy with most other chemotherapeutics.
Tumors with increased expression of EGFR (= HER1) and HER2 growth receptors generally have increased radioresistance, as the intrinsic signaling pathways of these receptors are involved in activating DNA repair processes upon ionizing radiation damage. By applying targeted biological treatment against growth factor receptors - cetuximab, trastuzumab, gefitinib, lapatinib, etc., the growth pathways of growth factors are interrupted, DNA repair capacity is reduced and thus the radiosensitivity of the tumor can be expected .
l Anti-repopulatory effect - cytostatics, and in particular some targeted biologic therapies, such as monoclonal antibodies against growth factors, reduce the repopulation of tumor cells during time-prolonged fractionated radiotherapy, leading to a more efficient killing of a larger fraction of tumor cells by radiation.
  In chemosensitive tumors, chemotherapy can also cause a reduction in the volume , a "shrinkage", of the tumor (similar effect to neoadjuvant chemotherapy ). Such a reduced tumor is then easier to treat with radiotherapy, both by reducing the number of tumor cells. improved blood circulation and oxygenation , leading to increased radiosensitivity due to the oxygen effect. The resulting effects of chemo-radiotherapy are analyzed in more detail below in the section " Prediction of the radiotherapeutic effect ".

Physical and radiobiological factors in radiotherapy
The optimal therapeutic effect of radiation is achieved by co-production of two types of factors:
¨ Physical factors - selective introduction of a sufficiently high dose of radiation into a pathological lesion by a suitable irradiation technique, using physical properties of radiation. We will discuss these physical aspects in detail in most of the text of this chapter; here we first briefly analyze the radiobiological aspects :
¨ Biological factors - the type of tumor and the properties of the surrounding healthy tissue. For radiotherapy is very important radiosensitivity of specific tumor type, as well as the difference in radiation sensitivity between tumor and healthy tissue *). Lymphomas, leukemia, seminoma are highly radiosensitive. Carcinomas, such as prostate adenocarcinoma, are moderately radiosensitive. Gliomas, sarcomas, melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma of the skin are radioresistant.
*) It is the risk of damage to the surrounding healthy tissues and organs that is the main limiting factor in delivering a sufficiently high dose to the tumor site. By critical organ or tissue we mean a structure in the organism whose radiation damage would have serious health consequences, or in the case of vital organs even death. Therefore, a certain so-called tolerance dose must not be exceeded during radiotherapyin these critical organs to prevent their irreversible damage.
Therapeutic ratio
For the possibility of achieving a good curative effect of radiotherapy, the most important thing is often not the actual radiosensitivity of the tumor tissue, but rather the ratio of the radiosensitivity of the tumor and surrounding healthy tissue - the so-called therapeutic ratio TR ( Therapeutic Ratio ). It can be quantified in different ways *): by comparing the dose-response curves of cell survival N / N ₀ (Fig. 5.2.3c) for tumor and surrounding healthy tissue (from the ratio of gradients or areas under these curves), or with the help of biologically effective dose BED , or by comparing the probability quantities TCP and NTCP (see below " Prediction of radiotherapeutic effect - TCP, NTCP ") . To quantify the therapeutic ratio of TR, we obtain different indices TR _{N / No} , TR _BED , TR _TCP , whose numerical values are different and must be considered separately. The therapeutic ratio can be improved by fractionation of radiation, combination with chemotherapy, improvement of oxidation of the tumor site (overcoming hypoxia, use of densely ionizing radiation with high LET) - is discussed below.
*) Therapeutic options were previously evaluated using the so-called Paterson graph, which shows the dependence of the relative number of killed tumor cells on the radiation dose. The same graph also shows the dose dependence of the risk of irreversible damage to the surrounding healthy tissue. In the favorable case, the curve for tumor tissue is on the left, the curve of the probability of complications of healthy tissue is shifted on the right. The width of the gap between these two sigmoidal curves is sometimes called the therapeutic width . More complex evaluations are now performed using special TCP and NTCP graphs - see below " Prediction of radiotherapeutic effect - TCP, NTCP " .
Irradiation time fractionation
Tumor tissue that is in a state of intense (pathological) cell division is usually more sensitive to radiation than healthy tissue (it is discussed in more detail in §5.2 " Biological effects of radiation ") . Fractional irradiation is usually used , where the total dose is divided into a number of smaller daily doses *), applied over a number of days (approximately 3-5 weeks, see below " Fractionation in practice ") .
*) Single irradiation of small lesions with a high dose (or substantial reduction of the number of fractions to 2-5) allows sterotactic radiotherapythanks to the possibility of very precise targeting of cancerous (or radioablative) dose with less load on the surrounding critical tissues and organs.
    There are basically two reasons for the time fractionation of the radiation dose :
1. Healthy tissue cells usually have a higher ability to repair radiation damage than tumor cells. When dividing the dose into a number of smaller fractions, applied individually after completion of the repair processes in the cells, the resulting cumulative biological effect on tumor tissue is generally higher than on healthy tissue, which has a greater regenerative capacity. Radiobiological aspects of radiation fractionation are discussed below. The radiotherapeutic effect on the tumor tissue itself is sometimes expressed by a probabilistic quantityTCP , defined below.
2. In each tissue, including tumor tissue, there are cells at different stages of the cell cycle, in which they have different radiobiological sensitivities. Therefore, a single dose of radiation may not be optimal for all cells, which may not be in the most sensitive phase. If the total dose is divided into several fractions with a suitable time interval, then after each such dose, the part of the cells which has just reached the most sensitive phase at that time can be most efficiently destroyed.
Dependence of radiation-biological effect on dose and its time schedule - LQ model
The dependence of deterministic radiation effect on dose and its time schedule is analyzed in detail in §5.2 " Biological effects of ionizing radiation ", part "Dose-biological effect relationship ", where the so-called linear-quadratic model (LQ) is introduced - see the section" LQ model ", Fig.5.2.3c. There is also a basic equation of dependence between dose D and the surviving fraction of cells N / N _o in (semi) logarithmic scale :
             -ln (N / N _o ) = a .D + { 2. [(1-e ^{- l .T} ). (1-1 / l .T)] / l .T } . b .D ² - ln2.T / T _2r ,
where a and b are the factors indicating the probabilities of damage a and b -processes, T is the irradiation time, l is the rate of cell repair, T _{2r is} the doubling time of the number of cells by repopulations. The coefficient in angle brackets {...} is the so-called Lea-Catcheside factor , which captures the effect of cell repair during irradiation. The linear member a .D is dominant for early-reacting tissues (with higher cell proliferation), the quadratic member b .D ² is more pronounced in late-reacting tissues. Basic linear-quadratic dependence N / N _oon the dose (D) is shown on a reduced scale for illustration below, in Fig.3.6.0.a. The general equations of the LQ model have rather theoretical significance ; for practical applications in radiotherapy, simpler special relationships for specific irradiation conditions and techniques are derived from them (see below "Irradiation fractionation"). These general radiation-biological mechanisms are approached in practice by some other individual biological influences , which are sometimes difficult to include in one LQ model.
Individual biological factors - " 6 R "
Biological effect of ionizing radiation in relation to the radiation dose, its time schedule and possibly. volume distribution is influenced by several factors and biological processes during irradiation (the names of which may be formulated beginning with the letter " R ") :
× The radiosensitivity
of the irradiated tissue is given by the sensitivity of individual cells to radiation damage; it generally varies considerably for different types of tissues. In the linear-quadratic model, radiosensitivity is implicitly contained in the coefficients a and b . However, each tissue is in fact a heterogeneous cell population , containing cells with different radiosensitivity - with different coefficients a, b : the resulting survival curve [ln (N / N ₀ )] (D) is then a superposition of several different LQ curves.
× Repair  
is the ability of cells to repair their important structures, especially DNA, damaged by ionizing radiation or other influences (cell repair processes are described in more detail in §5.2 , section "Repair processes") . Repair processes have a time dimension : they take a certain amount of time (given by the coefficient l - the rate of cell repair), and the repair must be carried out before further damage prevents successful repair. The repair processes, which take place continuously during irradiation, thus lead to a " dose rate effect ". In the LQ model, the repair is included in the additional coefficient RG º {...} for the b- member.
× Repopulation
Upon exposure to ionizing radiation, some cells die, but other cells normally divide and may eventually. to replace destroyed cells. This cell repopulation and tissue regeneration is provided by clonogenic stem cells. Repopulation is quantified by the rate of recovery of a number of cells, or the time T _2r of doubling of the number of cells. In the LQ model, the repopulation is captured in the additive term RP º ln2.T / T_2r . Exponential tumor growth is assumed here , which is approximately met only in the initial stages of growth of miniature tumors, with the growth of the tumor the growth rate slows down.
× Redistribution
Different cell types at different stages of the cell cycle are differently sensitive to ionizing radiation. During the actual exposure, the so-called redistribution of cells can occur - a change in the representation of different types of cells in the tissue *). During irradiation, more clonogenic stem cells and G1 and G2 cells of the cell cycle decrease, while effector daughter cells and M and S phase cells in general will be relatively larger. Stem cells are more radiation-sensitive than mother cells (see also §5.2 ); the goal of radiotherapy is to kill tumor stem cells. The redistribution effect leads to changes in intratumorous radiosensitivity during irradiation, as well as to specific side effects on healthy tissue *).
*) The processes of cell redistribution during irradiation have a complex time dynamics and occur both in the tumor target tissue and in the surrounding healthy healthy tissues. In the first part of the exposure, clonogenic stem cells are declining faster, which are (due to the faster cell cycle) more sensitive. This is followed by a gradual loss of daughter effector cells, which reduces the function of the irradiated tissue. A regulatory mechanism is in place to preserve tissue functionality, leading to a partial loss of division asymmetrystem cells, which begin to divide symmetrically into two effector cells each; thereby (at the cost of loss of stem cells) the functionality of the tissue is temporarily preserved. If exposure continues, as the number of clonogenic cells falls below a certain critical level (threatened by stem cell disappearance and subsequent tissue death), another regulatory mechanism occurs to trigger accelerated stem cell repopulation to maintain their population necessary for tissue regeneration. This reduces the production of effector daughter cells, which are no longer sufficient to cover the functional need for tissue - there is a clinical manifestation of deterministic radiation effect in healthy tissue, acute radiotoxicity (cf. the passage "Acute radiation sickness" in §5.2; on the side effects of radiotherapy - early and late radiotoxicity, is briefly discussed below - " Strategic goal of radiotherapy "). If the exposure continues (fractional irradiation) and the tolerance dose of the tissue is not exceeded, the proliferated stem cells can produce effector cells in sufficient numbers to ensure the basic (albeit reduced) functionality of the tissue; some "emergency steady state" may occur with the reduction or disappearance of previous acute problems in healthy critical tissue. In the case of a tumor lesion, on the other hand, it is desirable to deliver a sufficiently high dose to overcome the repopulation of clonogenic tumor cells - to reduce them to a zero level, leading to the death of tumor tissue .
× Reoxygenation - oxygen effect
The atoms of oxygen , contained in water and other molecules in the tissue, play a dominant role in the radiobiological effect - oxygen- generated oxygen radicals and peroxides effectively damage DNA in cells. During tumor growth, as the tumor mass increases, there is often a lack of oxygen in the cells, so-called hypoxia . Hypoxia occurs especially when the tumor grows faster than the capillary vascular network of tumor neoangiogenesis. In hypoxic tumor cells, a much slower metabolism takes place (they often remain in the G ₀ phase of the cell cycle) and during irradiation there is a lower formation of oxygen radicals - these cells therefore have reduced radiosensitivity, they are radioresistant.. The surviving fraction of these radioresistant hypoxic cells may be a potential risk of cancer recurrence.
    Irradiation can cause some reoxygenation (reduction of hypoxia) of tumor foci: reducing the number of tumor cells reduces total oxygen consumption and reducing the tumor can also reduce intratumorous pressure, loosen capillaries, and improve blood flow and supply to the remaining cells. The effect of reoxygenation is positive for radiotherapy - it increases the radiosensitivity of the tumor tissue *) and thus improves the therapeutic effect when using doses with limited tolerances of healthy tissues. The oxygen effect is significant especially when using sparsely ionizing radiation (photon radiation g is most often used  or X), where the indirect radical mechanism of the radiation effect predominates. In densely ionizing radiation, where there is an increased proportion of direct intervention mechanism (and also increased recombination of radicals), the effect of oxygen (oxygenation) on radiobiological effects is less significant (see " Hadron radiotherapy ")
*) Influence of oxygen content on radiosensitivity - so-called oxygen effect - is sometimes expressed by the factor OER ( oxygen enhancement ratio ), which indicates the relative increase in the biological efficiency of radiation in the presence of oxygen ( normooxidation ) compared to its absence. The ratio of OER between completely anoxic and normoxic tissue reaches a value of about 2.5 .
    The processes of redistribution and reoxygenation vary widely between different tumor tissues and are difficult to predict. It is therefore difficult to introduce them into the LQ model, they are usually considered separately. All these individual effects can result in changes in the radiation sensitivity of cells and tissues during irradiation , leading to further deviations from the dependencies of the ideal LQ model . Recently, the influence of the so-called bystander effect has also been discussed (see §5.2 " Biological effects of ionizing radiation ", passage " Bystander-Abscopal effect "), which could perhaps somewhat correct the effect of mild inhomogeneities in tumor tissue irradiation - increase the effect in underexposed parts target tissues.
× Volume factor - Radiation volume
The sixth factor is sometimes important for the final radiobiological effects in tumor tissue and critical organs especially, the volume of distribution of radiation doses - the size of the irradiated volume ( Radiated volume ). At the cellular level, the biological effect is determined primarily by the size of the dose; the same is true for local tissue effects. Therefore, in organs with a serial arrangement of functional parts (spinal cord, esophagus, intestine, optic nerve), the resulting radiobiological impact is dependent on the maximum local dose: at high local dose, the serial organ can be radiation "disrupted" with irreversible impairment of its function. In contrast, volume organs with parallelby arranging functional parts (lungs, liver, etc.) they tolerate high local irradiation well, even above 80Gy (causing failure of only negligible functional parts), but even relatively weaker irradiation (approx. 20Gy) of their entire volume can significantly impair their function - the resulting organ the effect depends on the average dose per organ.

For various radiation sensitivities of tissues and organs and their division into serial and parallel, see §5.2 , section " Local tissue and organ radiation effects ".
Irradiation fractionation according to the LQ model
The parameters a, b, l , T _2r in the equation of the dependence of the surviving fraction of cells on dose D and irradiation time T according to the linear-quadratic model, as well as other biological factors of redistribution and reoxygenation, are different for individual tissue types, especially for healthy and tumor tissues. This dependence can be used to optimize the resulting radiation response of tumor tissue with respect to healthy tissue using a suitable time schedule - fractionation - radiation dose. The total radiation dose D is distributed into individual fractions d _i (i = 1,2, ..., n) with irradiation times t _i. For a detailed analysis, the general Lea-Catcheside dose-time integral (derived in §5.2, " LQ model ") can be used in the equations of the LQ model . However, in the case of evenly distributed fractions d _i º d (D = nd), the duration of which t _i = t is short in comparison with the total duration T of radiotherapy treatment, this equation can be used for total therapy , substituting dose and time variables the following values :
l In the linear a - member we substitute the total dose D = nd, which is proportional to the number of damages by the double a -process ( a-processes in individual fractions do not interact with each other, they are composed linearly).
l In the quadratic b- member it is important that the square of the dose D ² in the LQ model during fractionation is not D ² = n ² .d ² (as would result directly from the power of the relation D = nd), but the number of fractions n appears in 1 .power : b .D ² = b .nd ² . The exact derivation of this fact lies in the solution of the general Lea-Catchesid integral. However, it also follows from the physico-biological mechanism: according to the theory of dual radiation action (see §5.2, section "Intervention and radical theory of radiation effect"), quadratic dose dependence refers to a single absorbed dose, in this case to dose d of one fraction - b .d ² ; the total effect is formed by the sum of n independent fractions , ie n. b .d ² . The individual factions do not interact with each other.
l Time T in the Lea-Catchesid coefficient at quadratic b - we replace the member with the exposure time of the irradiation fraction t (during which the cell repair takes place).
l For the time T in the additive repopulation member, we take the total time T of the given radiotherapy (assuming that the continuous repopulation of cells occurs during the whole therapy at approximately constant rate). The resulting equation of the LQ model for (regularly) fractionated irradiation with the total dose D = nd during the total time T , divided into n fractions with sub-doses d and exposure times t , will then be:
            -ln (N / N _o ) = a .D + n . { 2. [1- (1-e ^{-l .t} / l .t)] / l .t } . b .d - ln2.T / T _2r .
The repair mechanism may be more pronounced in LDR brachytherapy , especially in the late stages of permanent brachytherapy (see " Brachyradiotherapy " below). In EBRT teletherapy , the exposure time of the individual fractions t is short (approximately tens of seconds to minutes) due to the rate of cell repair: t << 1 / l , so the Lea-Catcheside factor {...} can be set equal to 1 (there are no interactions between the individual fractions) and the resulting effect will be: -ln (N / N _o ) = a .D + b . n .d ² - ln2.T / T _2r = ( a + b .d) .D - ln2.T / T _2r . When a single short irradiation (t = T << T _2r ) again apply additive repopulating member (ln2.T / T _2r ) ® 0.
    For a basic analysis of fractionated radiotherapy can be neglected temporal effects reparation and repopulation - we come from the basic equation LQ model :
             E º -ln (N / N _o ) = a .D + b.D ² ,
where the logarithm of the surviving fraction of cells N / N _o is denoted for brevity by E (a kind of "irradiation efficiency"). With regularly fractionated irradiation, D = nd, so simple algebraic adjustments gradually give (justification of the square of n u b .D ² was given above) :
            E = a .nd + b .nd ² = nd ( a + b .d) = D. a . [1+ ( b / a ) .d] = D. a . [1 + d / ( a / b )] .
We see that the radiobiological effect increases with increasing dose on fraction d and also depends on the value of the a / b ratio for the irradiated tissue. At high doses per fraction, the radiation effect is significantly higher; at a given dose D, the effect is highest when applied once, in one fraction (n = 1, d = D). If we apply a larger number of fractions n with a lower dose d to the fraction, we must increase the total dose D to achieve the same biological effect .
Biologically effective dose BED
The logarithmic irradiation efficiency E is therefore proportional to the total dose D with the coefficients a and [1 + d / ( a / b)]; it is this second coefficient that expresses the relationship of the biological effect to the fractionation of the dose and the a / b ratio of a given tissue. To express the dependence of the biological effect of radiation on dose fractionation, the derived biophysical dose quantity is introduced as the biologically effective dose of BED ( biological dose equivalent ) :
             BED º E / a = D. [1 + d / ( a / b )] .
It can be said that BED = (physical dose) ´ (proportionality coefficient); this proportionality factor [1 + d / ( a / b )] (relative efficiency) shows how the biological effect of irradiation depends on the fractionation and the ratio a/b for a specific irradiated tissue. Since lim _{d ® 0} BED = D, BED is a fictitious dose that would lead to the same biological effect if the total dose D were supplied in an infinitely large number of infinitesimal fractions (or for an infinitely long time with an infinitesimally low dose rate - if however, we neglect the time factor of cell repair and repopulation).
    Specific BED values are expressed in dosage units [Gy] provided with an index given by the numerical value of the a / b ratio for a particular tissue - BED _{a / b} . E.g. a dose of 60Gy, applied in 30 fractions of 2Gy, will form in the early reacting tissue (fast-growing tumor tissue, skin) with    a / b = 10 biologically effective dose of BED ₁₀ = 60. (1 + 2/10) = 72Gy ₁₀ , while in late-reacting tissue (lungs, liver, kidneys) with a / b = 3, BED ₃ = 60. (1 +2/3) = 100Gy ₃ .
    The concept of BED is important above all as a useful tool for comparing the effects of different fractionation regimes : the total dose D ₁ applied in n ₁ fractions d ₁ gives the same (equivalent) biological effect as the dose D ₂ in n ₂ fractions of size d ₂ if it leads to the same BED value: D _1. [1 + d ₁ / (  a / b )] = D _2. [1 + d ₂ / ( a / b )]. Also, the above-mentioned therapeutic ratio of TR radiation sensitivity of tumor tissue and surrounding healthy tissue can be quantified as the BED ratio for tumor tissue "TU" and normal healthy tissue "NT": TR_BED = BED _TU / BED _NT .
LQL model
In hypofractionation regimens with high doses per fraction (d> 5, 10 or more Gy / fraction), which allow the advanced conformational techniques of stereotactic radiotherapy and HDR brachytherapy described below, a certain discrepancy was shown between expected and observed effects: the classical LQ model at these higher doses per fraction somewhat overestimates the biological effect of radiotherapy, predicting higher damage to normal NTCP tissue. As if the curves of the surviving fraction of cells -ln (N / N _o ) (on a log-linear scale) at higher doses actually showed an increased proportion of the linear component than the quadratic. To capture these clinical findings, use is sometimes empirical model modification LQ called. LQ-L model (linear-quadratic-linear), which for higher doses / fraction (greater than 2. a / b , in practice> ca. 6Gy) adds additional linear componentincreasing the surviving fraction of cells. Other modifications of the LQ model lead to similar results - generalized gLQ model, USC (universal survival curve), KN (Kavahagh-Newman) model, PLQ (Pade Linear Quadratic), LQC model (linear-quadratic-cubic), see §5.2, part " Deviations and modifications of the LQ model ".
Fractionation in practice
The same radiation dose applied in a shorter time (at a higher dose rate) has greater biological efficiency - cf. also Fig.5.2.3 in §5.2, part " LQ model ". From a radiobiological point of view, the most effective would be a single irradiation *) of a given deposit with the required radiation dose of several tens of Gy. However, the problem here would be the high acute radiotoxicity to the surrounding healthy tissues, which always receive a certain (albeit smaller) dose of radiation together with the target foci. Therefore, it is necessary to divide the curative radiation dose into a larger number of smaller parts - fractions . By suitable fractionation it is possible to achieve that in the time interval between fractions there is a partial reparation and regenerating healthy tissue, which is then able to tolerate the burden of the next dose. However, this also increases the tolerance of the tumor cells (although usually less than in the cells of healthy tissue), so that it is necessary to increase the total dose to the tumor site.
*) However , let us consider point 2 in the paragraph " Time fractionation of irradiation " ..? ..
    The most common fractionation, normofractionation , consists in the application of about 2Gy 1 ´ per day (5 days a week), for a period of 5-8 weeks ( 5w-8w ) , total dose about 60-80Gy. From a radiobiological point of view, the optimal fractionation scheme depends on the type of tumor, whether it is slow or fast growing. In fast-growing tumors, the so-calledhyperfractionation , in which more smaller doses (approx. 1.2 Gy) are applied at shorter time intervals, eg 2-3 ´ per day, to limit the rapid repopulation of clonogenic tumor cells. The slower dividing cells of healthy tissues (due to the time interval between fractions) can be regenerated, the risk of late radiotoxicity is reduced. The whole irradiation process is often shortened and accelerated here - so-called accelerated radiotherapy. Are used classically fraction 2 / day. Further, mode CHART ( Continuous Hyperfractinated Accelerated Radiotherapy ) hyperfractionated irradiation 3 ' day, and continuous over a weekend. The opposite procedure, so-called hypofractionation , when only 2 ´ or 1 is irradiated´ weekly, it is used in palliative therapy, HDR brachytherapy and sometimes also in radioresistant and slow-growing tumors.
    Single irradiation with a high dose of tens of Gy radiation is used in the so-called stereotactic radiotherapy , described below
   ( " Stereotactic radiotherapy. Gamma-knife. "); here the radiobiological efficacy is no longer precisely described by the LQ model (in addition to apoptosis, immediate cell death by necrosis also applies), the so-called LQL model or other high-dose modifications described in §5.2, section " Deviations and modifications of the LQ model " are introduced.
    In addition to the regular doses, which are part of the used fractionation regime, certain additional or additional doses are sometimes applied, so-called boost ( boost = additional increase ) - " saturation of". Reasons for boost application may be radiobiological (improvement of local tumor control with respect to individual tumor conditions and surrounding tissues) or technical (when for medical reasons or for irradiator failure the whole irradiation series does not go according to schedule - additional dose needs to compensate tumor and healthy tissues). To determine the doses in the boost, it is appropriate to use radiobiological modeling based on the LQ model; however, it is often based on empirical experience. A special technique is the so-called concomitant boost CB (Concomitant Boost; concomitant = concurrent), in the case of hyperfractionated radiotherapy, 2 doses are administered sequentially daily: one for the total target volume of PTV, the other only for the inner part of GTV, containing the macroscopic volume of the tumor itself (see " Planning radiotherapy " below). This increases the dose in the form of PTV in which there is a higher risk of recurrence. Using the IMRT technique of modulating beam intensity using an MLC collimator (see " Modulation of irradiation beams " below), maximum tumor dose (GTV), somewhat lower dose in the CTV region with potential for microarray, and minimized dose in surrounding critical tissues can be achieved relatively accurately. The two batches of concomitant boost can then be combined and applied simultaneously within one daily fraction. This advanced technique, called SIB (Simultaneous Integrated Boost ) gradually replaces sequential concomitant boost. 
Prediction of the radiotherapeutic effect - the likelihood of curing a tumor TCP and damaging normal NTCP tissue 
Successful radiotherapy - the cure of a cancer - involves killing as many clonogenic cells in the tumor site as possible that would be able to regenerate the tumor (recurrence) if they survived. To quantify this basic goal of radiotherapy and to predict the success of treatment, the quantity TCP ( Tumor Cure / Control Probability ) was introduced - the probability of cure the tumor . The radiobiological effect and the behavior of cell populations have a stochastic (probabilistic) character, according to Poisson statistics . The probability that it will not occur after irradiation to redistribute clonogenic cells and tumor growth, is given by the exponential relation TCP = e ^{- N} , where N is the number of surviving clonogenic cells in the lesion after irradiation *). Substituting for N from the LQ model, we get a double exponential relation for the dependence of TCP on the dose D .:
              TCP (D) = e ^{- N o .e - (a .D + b .D 2 )} = e ^{- N o .e - a . BED} ,
where N _o is the original number of clonogenic cells in the tumor before irradiation (N _o is on the order of 10 ¹⁰ -10 ¹² cells). The graph of this function is S-shaped - for low doses up to about 20-30Gy, TCP is close to zero (almost no therapeutic effect), then increases approximately linearly, and for doses above 80-100Gy, the "saturation state" of TCP ® 1 (100% effect) - red TCP curve in Fig.3.6.0b; however, specific values are different for individual types of tumor tissue, they depend on radiosensitivity (on values a, b ).
*) This remarkably simple relationship results from the more complex laws of mathematical statistics . Overall cell survival is a stochastic random variable of a binomial naturePoisson statistical distribution . If we mean the number of clonogenic cells N, then the probability P (n) is a random phenomenon that survives n cells is given by P (n) = (N ⁿ /n!).e ^{- N} . For n = 0 we obtain P (0) = (N ⁰ /0!).e ^{- N} = e ^{- N} . It is the decrease in the number of remaining clonogenic cells to n = 0 that can be considered as a guarantee of definitive liquidation of the tumor ; Thus, the probability is TCP = e ^{- N} .
    To express adverse biological effects on normal healthy tissue during radiotherapy, an analogous quantity of NTCP (Normal Tissue Complication Probability - the probability of complications from damage to normal NT tissue , especially critical organs (see below). NTCP comes from the same radiation patterns of the stochastic Poisson death and cell survival, such as TCP, but applied to the surrounding healthy tissue, a certain fraction of the tumor irradiated dose D . When substituting from the LQ model, in addition to the relevant parameters N _o , a, b, l , T _2r for the given NT tissue, it is necessary to include the volume factor , with regard to serial or parallel tissue type :
            NTCP(D,V) = e^{-No.V-k.e-(a.D + b.D2)} = e^{-No.V-k.e-a . BEDNT} ,
where V [% /100] is the relative proportion of the volume of irradiated normal tissue, the parameter k describes the volume effect (k = 0-1; parallel organs with a large volume effect have a higher value of k than serial organs with a small volume effect), BED _NT is the biologically effective dose for normal NT tissue. In the parameter N _o (which no longer has the immediate significance of the initial number of cells, as is the case with TCP) the requirement for a minimum number of surviving cells (or their percentage; these are stem clonogenic cells) in NT is implicitly included so that their deficit does not lead to exceeding the functional reserve competent critical authority and its necessary function has been maintained. The dose dependence of NTCP (D) has a similar sigmoidal shape as TCP (D), but is shifted horizontally to higher doses of D (normal tissue receives only a small part of the tumor dose D, or only a certain part of the NT volume is irradiated) - NTCP green curve in Fig.3.6.0b. In radiobiological modeling in radiotherapy, the effort is to maximize TCP ( ® 1) and minimize NTCP ( ®0), although it is often very difficult ....
Functional modeling of TCP and NTCP
Instead of primary above-derived 2-exponential functions, the sigmoidal course of dose-response curves TCP (D) and NTCP (D) is modeled in practice using "secondary" so-called . probit-function (from eng. probability ) of Gaussian shape
               F(D,D₅₀,m,V) = (1/Ö2p)_-An^{[(D/D50.V-k) - 1]/m}e^-x2/2dx ,
where D ₅₀ is the dose value with a 50% probability of the studied effect (tumor elimination or complication in normal tissue) and m is the slope parameter of the TCP (D) or NTCP (D) curve in the linear section (maximum value of derivation according to dose D). D ₅₀ and m play the role of form-factors of the sigmoidal shape of the curves. V is the relative proportion of the volume of irradiated tissue, k describes the volume effect. For TCP the parameter k = 0 (so V ⁰ = 1 - volume does not apply), in the case of NTCP the value of the parameter k> 0 models the normalization of dose Dper volume , with respect to the serial or parallel type of critical tissue (volume effect mentioned above, "sixth R"). In case of uneven irradiation of critical NT tissue (as in practice) a suitable correction is made for NTCP determination - instead of dose D the so-called equivalent uniform dose of EUD is introduced , recalculating the irradiation effect of individual sub-volumes V _i (total number N, ie. _{i = 1} S ^N V _i = V _tot = 1) with partial doses d _i for uniform irradiation of the whole critical organ: EUD = ( _{i = 1} S ^N V _i .d _i ^k ) ^{1 / k} (weighted sum of partial volume contributions of the given NT body with volume factor k). Modeling of the radiotherapeutic effect using TCP and NTCP was first introduced by J.T.Lyman, G.J.Kutcher and C.Burman in the 1980s ( LKB model ).
    Methodological note: Unified concept of TCP and NTCP
From the point of view of radiotherapy, TCP and NTCP are independent quantities, related to different tissues with different parameters of radiosensitivity and with conflicting requirements of radiobiological effect. In the professional literature, therefore, they are mostly introduced as separate models. However, the basic ideological aspects have TCP and NTCP in common: the same radiobiological mechanism of cell survival and killing (quantified in the LQ model) and the probability character with the Poisson distribution. Here we have tried to outline a unified theory, deriving both TCP and NTCP from the same initial "baseline principles " as the Poisson statistical distribution and LQ model of cell survival dose dependence. The basic approach is then exactly the same, only with NTCP the percentage of irradiated NT volume and the volume factor of a given NT tissue are introduced. The TCP and NTCP models are thus unified into one concept. An open problem in this approach, however, remains the expression of the minimum number (percentage) of clonogenic cells in NT that must survive to maintain long-term functionality of critical tissues and organs - with respect to functional reserve of relevant NT, their parallel or serial character .