AstroNuclPhysics ® Nuclear Physics - Astrophysics - Cosmology - Philosophy | ||
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ANTHROPIC
PRINCIPLE The mystery of the origin or creation of the Universe Space - time - matter - space - man Intelligent life RNDr. Vojtech Ullmann, physicist
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Anthropic principle and/or cosmic God
Vojtěch
Ullmann, Ostrava
- Sylabus
lectures -
1.
Introduction
Thoughtful people have long been
interested not only in the problems of everyday life and local
manifestations of nature, but also - at least sometimes - also ask
" eternal " questions of a
global, even eschatological nature. Some of them relate to the
universe :
What
is the size, shape and structure of the universe? Is it
finite or infinite? How is it evolving? Is the universe here from eternity to eternity, or was it once created - and will it disappear again? What is the essence of the universe? Did the universe come into being spontaneously, or was it created by God? Are there other universes? |
This is followed by another group of questions about the relationship between life and the universe :
Is
the origin of life a legal or accidental phenomenon? Did
life originate elsewhere in the universe? Are there
extraterrestrial civilizations? What is our place in space? - Are we just insignificant local fluctuations in entropy, or is the universe built for us? Is there a God? - and if so, where and how to look for it? |
In our lecture, we will try to think physically about some of these questions, as well as the philosophical aspects of contemporary astrophysics and cosmology.
2.
Space and cosmology
The first group of questions mentioned
in the "Introduction", ie the global construction and
development of the universe as a whole, deals with cosmology
. Cosmology can be considered an interdisciplinary field
on the border of astronomy, physics and philosophy.
In antiquity and the Middle Ages, cosmology was based on mystical
foundations . Due to her lack of knowledge of nature and
the universe, she was made up of naive earthly images that had
little to do with reality. A characteristic feature of the
science of the time was the chasm separating the laws of
terrestrial nature from the "heavenly" laws of the
universe. Only the research of Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler and
especially Newton bridged this senseless gap and suggested that
the world probably holdsthe universal laws of physics that
govern both terrestrial nature and cosmic bodies. Later,
spectrometric analysis of radiation coming from the farthest
reaches of the universe showed that natural processes taking
place here on Earth and throughout the observation of the
available universe are governed by the same physical laws of
mechanics, gravity, electrodynamics, atomistics, nuclear physics,
thermodynamics, plasma physics, etc.
The classic "instructions" on how to understand the universe can therefore be roughly described by the following scheme :
In order to have a
chance to at least outline such a complex (actually the most
complex) object as the universe, we must resort to far-reaching simplifications
and idealizations that abstract from local
structures and peculiarities but preserve important global
features of the universe: we create cosmological models .
The simplest models are based on mechanical
concepts and Newton's laws of dynamics and gravity, the more
complex ones include the effects of the general theory of
relativity. They are often represented by our visually accessible
one-dimensional or two-dimensional images (eg the surface of an
inflatable balloon).
In addition to these general principles, contemporary cosmology is based on two important facts :
By combining the
general theory of relativity and cosmology, relativistic
cosmology is created . The lecture will briefly outline the
basic principles of relativistic cosmology and the properties of
some cosmological models *). The most important of these is
Fridman's model, which, together with Hubble's law of redshifting
the spectra of distant galaxies, leads to the conclusion that the
universe as a whole is expanding .
*) The physical aspects of relativistic
cosmology are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5 " Relativistic
Cosmology " of the book " Gravity,
Black Holes and the Physics of Spacetime ".
How did the universe come into being ?
Relativistic cosmology in co-production with other physical
disciplines (such as atomic and nuclear physics, thermodynamics,
hydrodynamics, elementary particle physics) has arrived at the
so-called standard cosmological model of the origin of the
universe. According to this model, the universe was born about
13-15 billion years ago in a very hot and dense state, with the
so-called Big Bang . Since then, the universe has expanded
and cooled. The history of the expanding universe is usually
divided into 4 significant stages: the hadron era , the lepton
era , the radiation era , and the matter era
*); in the lecture these periods will be briefly characterized
*).
*) For more details see §5.4 "Standard
cosmological model. The Big Bang
"in the same monograph" Gravity, Black Holes ...
".
The scenario of the standard cosmological model quite convincingly explains the structure and evolution of the universe and is now almost universally accepted. Nevertheless, there are some issues and issues. The first is the problem of the initial singularity and thus the finiteness of the universe in time - the question of the origin or creation of the universe (" what was when there was nothing yet? "). In this context, it should be noted that the idea of ??an oscillating universe , often featured in popular (sometimes in professional) publications, is a paradigm; it is not in accordance with thermodynamics or with the general theory of relativity: if the Fridman universe is closed, it is unicycle! Furthermore, there is the problem of global homogeneity and isotropy of the universe, which encounters the existence of a horizon of events in Fridman's cosmological model: distant (opposite) regions of the early universe fly apart too fast to "agree" to arrange the universe. later it showed as perfect homogeneity and isotropy as we observe. Another global problem is the mystery of the so-called flatness of the early universe: why was the initial rate of expansion of the universe "tuned" to the escape velocity with immense precision (or the mass density of a very early universe was exactly equal to the critical density)?
The standard
cosmological model is able to answer these questions only by the
excuse that the initial conditions during the Big Bang
were - by chance or by God's cause? - just that the
universe now has the structure we observe. Questions of the
origin of the universe and the origin of its properties have
often been referred to in the field of metaphysics and theology.
There are also other "smaller" problems in the standard
model, such as the problem of relic magnetic monopolies and other
exotic particles (which should persist in the universe in an
unacceptable amount from the Big Bang period), the problem of the
spectrum of germinal inhomogeneities, etc.
It is recently that physicists dealing with the quantum microphysics of the very early universe have found an elegant way to solve the problems of standard cosmology. This new development of cosmology of the very early universe began in 1981, when the American physicist A. Gut, based on the analysis of phase transitions in grandunification theories, hypothesized the so-called inflationary expansion of the universe, according to which the universe expanded exponentially for a short time. increasing speed . After completion sprocesses of phase transition, the universe then began to expand according to Fridman's law as we know it today. This hypothesis was soon developed by other astrophysicists (eg Linde, Steinhadt, Albrecht, Hawking) who proposed several variants of space inflation expansion scenarios (non-inflationary models, chaotic inflation) - see §5.5 " Microphysics and Cosmology. Inflation Universe. " Books "Gravity, black holes and space - time physics " .
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Graphical representation of the expansion of the universe according to the inflation model in comparison with the standard model. |
The idea of inflationary expansion of a very early universe naturally solves most of the problems of the standard model. Our entire observable universe (metagalaxy) was created by the inflationary expansion of a single very small (and therefore causally continuous) spatial area of ??the pre-inflationary period. The resulting region of the universe will automatically be homogeneous and isotropic, will be practically planar, and the occurrence of any exotic particles from the pre-inflationary period will be diluted to virtually zero density.
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Representation
of the size of the universe for different models of
expansion. a) Standard model b) Simple inflation model c) |
The concept of the inflationary universe leads to significant changes in our perceptions of the origin and global structure of the universe. Above all, the universe is probably much larger than previously thought: we live within a metagalaxy that is only a tiny part of the whole created by inflationary (and later Fridman) expansion. Furthermore, phase transitions of the unitary field accompanied by inflationary expansion could have arisen spontaneously in a number of places in the very early universe. The whole Universe would then consist of many separate " mini-universes " (metagalaxies) with different properties - see §5.5., The passage " The Origin of Multiple Universes " in the monograph " Gravity, Black Holes and the Physics of Spacetime ".
Some concepts of quantum
cosmology go even further in this direction : according to
them, " new universes " can be created
spontaneously everywhere and constantly, from sufficiently strong
quantum field fluctuations in a vacuum that they succumb to
inflationary expansion. According to quantum theory (in
connection with Heisenberg's uncertainty relations), the vacuum
in microscales is filled with chaotic quantum field fluctuations
as well as space-time metrics of various amplitudes and ranges.
In the area of Planck lengths (10 -33cm) the fluctuations are already so strong that the
space - time topology fluctuates ("foamy" vacuum
structure). The vast majority of quantum fluctuations immediately
disappear (during Planck's time). However, there is a certain
probability of a sufficiently intense and at the same time
sufficiently large fluctuation, in which the energy density of
the considered (mostly scalar) field is constant in the region
exceeding the causal (de Sitter) horizon, given by the energy
density of this field. In this situation, then, according to the
Einstein-Fridman equations, the scale factor will grow according
to the exponential law - there will be an inflationary expansion
of this area, which will grow into a "new universe".
In this way, "mini-universes" and sometimes by
inflationary expansion and "real universes" could
emerge everywhere and constantly different number of
dimensions of spacetime. The dynamics of field behavior
during inflation and during the phase transition, together with
the number of dimensions in which inflation took place and the
number of dimensions that remained compacted ,
determines the structure of spacetime, the properties of physical
interactions and elementary particles in each such universe.
The entire Universe
thus appears as the bubbling "foam" of expanding
"bubbles" - separate
universes ,
each governed by its own laws of physics. These parallel
universes, moving in the initial variety, the so-called hyperspace , live their "own life".
Anything that is physically possible can take place in some
parallel universe.
Our universe could be part of a "sea" of an infinite
number of other parallel universes. And the whole universe
visible to us is just a small area in one
of these bubbles. Otherwise, very few bubbles have physical and
geometric properties suitable for creating more complex
structures - galaxies, stars, planets and ultimately life.
The mechanism of inflationary expansion and its influence on the
global structure of the universe is briefly explained in the
lecture and illustrated in figures -
physical details see again §5.5 " Microphysics
and cosmology. Inflationary universe " monograph " Gravity,
black holes and space-time physics
".
3. The concept of multiple
universes
The idea of more universes is encountered in astrophysics and
cosmology in basically three contexts :
a) Everet-Wheeler
interpretation of quantum laws
There are
infinitely many universes in the configuration space of quantum
mechanics. During each interaction, not only the final state in
our universe is realized, but also all other possible states in
individual universes - all "wasted chances" from our
universe are realized.
Each historical event takes place
differently in all possible variants in different parallel worlds
..?.
b)
Geometric-topological properties of spacetime - black holes
Rotating or electrically charged black holes have a complex geometric and topological structure of
spacetime - they can be bridges (tunnels) to other universes
. However, a more detailed analysis shows that this possibility
is only theoretical. Cauchy horizons inside the black hole,
allowing it to penetrate the particles to be causally separate
regions of space - another universe, are unstable to
perturbations fields outside the black hole and against kva n -ionic
fluctuations, so in fact probably do
not realize
. For a more detailed
analysis, see §3.5 and §4.4. books "Gravity, Black Holes
and the Physics of Spacetime", especially the passage "
Black
Holes - Bridges to Other Universes?".
c) Cosmological
applications of quantum and unitary theories
Quantum field
fluctuations => inflation expansion => spontaneous formation
of multiple universes ( more specifically
" Microphysics and cosmology. Inflationary universe. ", passage " Origin
of multiple universes ") .
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A large number of universes can spontaneously be born from the quantum foam of fluctuating fields |
According to some unitary field theories (see " Unification of fundamental interactions. Supergravity. Superstrings. ") There may be additional "extra-dimensions" in space-time that are hidden to us - they are rolled (compacted) into tiny sub-microscopic sizes; in our Universe 3 spatial dimensions and 1 temporal dimension are developed. Along with our Universe (macroscopically 3 + 1-dimensional), other "parallel" universes (with our only loosely "ideologically similar") may coexist with other developed and compacted dimensions (cf. " Anthropic Principle and the Existence of Multiple Universes ").. And perhaps countless other "universes", in which it is all completely different ..? .. Even if such "universes" existed, they would be beyond our means of space-time knowledge - they would probably be inaccessible and unobservable to us in principle . .? ..
Different
meanings of the term "universe"
It is necessary to draw attention to the terminological and
philosophical-methodological problems of the concept of multiple
universes. The term "universe" is used in several
senses , the basic of which are the following three:
4. Anthropic principle and life in the universe
One of the basic questions of astrophysics and cosmology is: Why
is the universe built in the same way (specifically) and not
differently? After all, the laws of physics would allow the
existence of a universe with completely different properties! It
turns out that even the fact of our human existence
allows us to look at this question, as well as the question of
man's place in the universe , from a somewhat unusual
angle. What laws and phenomena have made it possible for life to
develop here on Earth - and perhaps in many biospheres elsewhere
in the universe - and eventually creatures
capable of thinking about their origins ? This
approach is collectively referred to as the anthropic
principle .
The
beginnings of the anthropic principle were foreshadowed by
reflections on the wonderful relationships and ratios between
" large numbers " characterizing the
physical constants of space and microworld (eg the ratio of space
to atomic nucleus, or the ratio of binding constants of
individual types of interactions). .Dirac. Are certain
conspicuous coincidences in these numbers
(differing by tens of orders) random or have a deeper meaning? In the 1960s and 1970s, some experts in astrophysics and
cosmology (especially Dicke, Carter, Hawking, Collins, Wheeler,
and others) pointed out that there are some important limitations
to the very fact of our human existence. on the
initial conditions and the course of evolution of the universe
(see figure), as well as on the values ??of "constants"
and parameters in the laws of physics. The very name Anthropic
Principle was first used in 1968 by B.Carter.
After all, the term " principle
" is perhaps somewhat unfortunate and misleading
- it is not a central principle in physical, astronomical or
scientific knowledge in general. The anthropic
"principle" is rather a kind of
"conglomerate" of specific ideas, concepts and
contexts, having something to say to the mystery of the origin
and development of our so specific universe. Astrophysical
aspects of the anthropic principle are discussed in §5.7 " Anthropic
principle and the existence of multiple universes " of the above-cited book "Gravity, black
holes ...".
Why is
there " something " and
not " nothing " ?
Our world is filled with a lot of
interesting things - billions of galaxies, nebulae, trillions of
stars, planets and other structures in space. On our planet (and perhaps some of it on other planets) are beautiful natural formations - mountains, rivers,
sea, trees and countless other plants and animals, we humans. Why
do all these interesting and complex things even exist ?: " Why
is there ' something ' instead
of ' nothing ' .. ?
.." - this is the most important question of fundamental
physics.
The basic laws of physics, including the theory
of relativity, quantum and particle physics, suggest that the
universe should most likely be a rather boring place - it should
be dark, inhospitable, without macroscopic structures and
therefore of course without life ... We cannot do special
properties of the universe explain. A certain way to understand
this would be the hypothesis that we live in a multiverse
. In most individual universes there is almost nothing ,
in complete emptiness and darkness the fluctuating fields
incoherently propagate and only a quantum of fields and particles
move, without any structures . But we live in one of the
few universes where the laws of physics allow ' something
' to exist- to enable more complex
structures to emerge and evolve (see
" Multi-Universe Concepts " below) .
The universe exactly " tuned
" for life?
What happens in nature and the
universe, its structure and evolution, take place according to
the laws of physics . In addition to the form of
functional dependencies between physical quantities, these laws
contain a set of basic natural constants - parameters
whose values ??determine the " degree or intensity
" of the process. In our nature, these constants are
precisely given (measured), but in principle they could
take on different values ; natural processes would then
take place differently . The evolution of nature
is very "sensitive" to the values ??of some parameters.
Under " precise tuning
"Here we mean a situation where small changes in certain
parameters could cause large changes in the evolution of the
system - in this case, a universe in which life could or could
not arise and exist.
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From a global-cosmological point of
view: |
In terms of
physical constants :
Similarly, if the physical constants had slightly different values , resp. after m -era values (just
a few percent) than
it is in our nature, the evolution of the universe would also
take place otherwise and would not produce life *) - at least not
in our familiar forms-based organic compounds of carbon (about the importance of carbon as a
basic biogenic element, see below " Carbon - a basic biogenic element ") .
*) Truth be told, we reach this conclusion when we change one
from the laws of physics, or its parameters, leaving the others
unchanged. Then, indeed, only a slight change in one of the laws
of physics would change the evolution of the universe so much
that it would make life impossible. If we hypothetically change
the parameters in the standard model of particle physics, for
example, so that the strong nuclear interaction would be
somewhat weaker, nuclear nucleosynthesis inside stars would
produce too little carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and other biogenic
elements (stellar nucleogenesis is
discussed in more detail in §4.1 , part " Thermonuclear reactions inside
stars " monograph
"Gravity, black holes and space - time physics"). Similarly, if the masses of the "u" and
"d" quarks were slightly different, for example, a
proton could become slightly heavier than a neutron, protons
would decay into neutrons, and no atoms would be formed.
Changing the strength of the weak
interaction would change the course of the initial
nucleosynthesis at the beginning of the universe (and later the thermonuclear reactions inside the stars)
, which could also change the
representation of elements to the detriment of more complex
elements of organic chemistry and life. If the strength of the
weak interaction were smaller, neutrons would decay more slowly
and most of them would merge with helium protons in the
lepton-era era (a similar effect would
occur if the rate of expansion of the universe were lower at the
beginning) . This would lead to a
proton deficiency- matter in the universe would consist
mainly of helium, there would not be enough hydrogen
for the later formation of water and hydrocarbons necessary for
life (primordial nucleogenesis for the
conditions of our universe is discussed in more detail in §5.4
" Standard Cosmological Model. Big Bang. Shaping
the structure of the universe. ")
passage " Primordial nucleosynthesis ") .
So far, the situation where we would
simultaneously change two
or more parameters or laws of
physics at the same time is not sufficiently explored (this may be the task of future research in nuclear
astrophysics and cosmology). We can
imagine such "clever" changes in two or more
parameters, in which it could happen that their consequences for
the chemical development of the universe are in a sense " compensated
". In addition to specific physical laws with parameter
values, as we observe in our anthropic universe, there may be
other "sets" of laws with different parameter values
??that may result in the evolution of a universe other than ours,
but still allowing for complex reactions and life. .. It is even
possible to hypothetically imagine a universe with such a
combination of physical laws-constants-parameters, in which the
conditions for the origin and evolution of life would be even
more suitable than in ours ..?! .. And such alternative
universes may actually arise and exist ..? ..
The physically possible states
that the universe can acquire allow the origin of life only in a
very narrow range; just a small deviation is enough and the
universe will continue to exist physically, but life will no
longer be possible in it. Precise
adjustment - fine "tuning " - of all these
necessary values ??and specific conditions seems like a very
unlikely coincidence ; all the more so when it
is necessary to "chain" the individual improbable
states into a continuous sequence of conditions, which results in
the emergence of life and ultimately an intelligent observer. Or
is there something behind it that escapes
astrophysics and cosmology? This is exactly what the anthropic
principle seeks to answer .
Stars, planets,
life in space
What is life?
An objective and universal " definition
" of life , which would include all the
various forms of life (including those that have already
disappeared or have not yet been discovered), is by no means
easy. If we summarize some basic common properties of hitherto
known organisms, then we can simply say: Life is a
self-sustaining and reproducing chemical system in which
self-organizing feedback mechanisms work (despite the general tendency in nature to lead to
greater disorder - entropy growth ) and
is capable of evolution . An
important circumstance for a correct understanding of life was
the refutation of so-called vitalism - the assumption
that complex "organic" substances are created by the
action of some specific "vital forces" which are
inherent only in living organisms (they are different from the
forces controlling inanimate nature). Careful physicochemical
research has shown with absolute certainty that not a single atom
in any living organism is any different from
that in an inanimate "inorganic" nature. Also all
complex "organic" molecules in organisms can be (at
least in principle) prepared by synthesis of inorganic
atoms hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus and possibly next. What makes an organism alive is not
some mysterious "life-vital force", but an amazing
combination and interplay of the myriad chemical and biophysical
processes that take place in a living organism. This is mainly
due to the ability of carbon to form an
extraordinary variety of compounds. Carbon atoms can combine with
each other and with other atoms not only into simple molecules
(linear or cyclic), but also into chains that can have hundreds,
thousands to millions of links - to form macromolecules
. During the cessation of vital functions - the death of an
organism - none of its atoms are "lost", only the
coordination of the mentioned complex processes is lost; and many
complex "organic" molecules eventually decompose into
simpler ones.
The basis of biology is the study of the structure and
activity of the cell as a basic building block
of organisms. Biological processes in cells and in the whole
organism are based on chemical reactions mainly
of complex organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements, which take place
mainly in the aquatic environment. Only the discovery of cells
and the gradual recognition of the complex biochemical
reactions that take place in cells at the molecular
level transformed at the end of the 19th and in the 20th century.
biology and medicine from descriptive empirical doctrine
(description of species, "counting of petals and
stamens", external manifestations of diseases, ..., with
many unsubstantiated and erroneous assumptions) to real science,
enabling to understand on a uniform exact basis the essence and
functioning of life, in physiological and pathological
situations. Research into complex biochemical processes at the
subcellular level will continue for a long time. Cells, their
structure and activity are discussed in more detail in §5.2,
section " Cells - basic units of living
organisms " monograph
"Nuclear physics and physics of ionizing radiation".
Where and how can life arise?
A phenomenon as complex as life
in the universe can hardly develop in any empty space. At the
very least, a source of energy and a suitable material
carrier of life must be present . The sources of radiant
energy in the universe are stars and suitable
material carriers capable of providing suitable and long-term
stable conditions for the time-consuming process of
origin and evolution of life are planets
orbiting stars - it is discussed in more detail below in the
section " Life-Giving
Stars and Planets ". On
these planets with suitable conditions,
"terrestrial-type" life could most likely originate and
evolve first in the shallows of warm seas, bathed in light and
heat from the parent star. Hypothetically, however, there is
another possibility:
The
origin of life in the thermal submarine depths? Under specific circumstances, perhaps life could evolve
in groundwater and on more distant cold
terrestrial planets, or on the moons
orbiting large planets far from the parent star. The necessary
heat could be supplied by tidal forces arising
during orbit (see §1.2, passage " Gravitational gradients -
tidal forces " in
the book "Gravity, black holes ..."), which dynamically
deform - "knead" - the material of the planet or moon,
thereby with friction generates thermal energy. Another source of
internal thermal energy could be the slow radioactive
decay of natural radioisotopes of uranium, thorium and
potassium for hundreds of millions and billions of years (see
§1.4 " Radionuclides ", passage "
Geological significance of
natural radioactivity
" in the book " Nuclear Physics and Ionizing
Radiation Physics ""). The interior of such a
planet or moon could have a temperature of hundreds or thousands
of degrees in the long run. If there is more water - the sea, the
ocean, there may be hydrothermal vents on the
sea floor , through which hot gases spring from the hot interior
and bubble water upwards. There may be a reasonable temperature
(approx. 10-40 o C) in the vicinity of these places ,
enough carbon dioxide and dissolved minerals to be able to
"boil" prebiotic chemistry and then form precursors to
membranes, self-replicating organic molecules and finally
metabolism. ? .. Such "peaceful" places, sheltered from
the adverse events that ravage the planet's surface, can provide
evolving life with nutrients, energy, and a safe haven.let us
also compare the possibilities outlined below in the passage
"How did life originate? ".
Note:
Here on Earth, there are geothermal vents in the
submarine depths, in the vicinity of which it is full of life.
However,this life did not originate
here, but the relevant organisms got there from elsewhere and
adapted to specific conditions.
One such place where it evolved life, we know intimately, it is a
system: [star = sun ] + [planet = earth
] But there is nothing unique in our solar system that could not
arise elsewhere in the universe Basic physical and chemical
processes take place in the same way on Earth
and elsewhere in the cosmos(sometimes
called the name uniformity principle).
The same mechanisms that led to the emergence of life on our
planet could create living systems elsewhere in
space where the conditions are right. The position of the Earth
in space is not exceptional, so perhaps we can expect some forms
of life on other suitable plantations ..?.. In addition, there
may be other mechanisms (unknown
to us) , which may result in complex
conditions even under different conditions.
matter acting as what we call life
.
There are billions of Sun-like stars in the Milky Way alone, and
the planetary systems around the stars are a natural consequence
of their formation from a rotating germ nebula (see §4.1 " The role of
gravity in the formation and evolution of stars , "passage" Planet "book" Gravity, black holes and the physics
of space ") . Given that the universe
is vast (practically infinite) can be endlessly repeated variations and"
experiments "on an assembly of galaxies, stars, planetary
systems, so there may be a system ("similar world")
like our solar system and planet Earth ... Or a little different,
on which somewhat different processes could also allow the
emergence of life ...? ..
But let's compare
below the somewhat skeptical reflection in the passage " The uniqueness of life? - a
series of highly unlikely coincidences "...
Exoplanets ,extrasolar or
exoplanets for short .
The performance of current telescopes is not yet sufficient for
direct observation of planets around distant stars. However,
there are indirect methods for detecting exoplanets (it is also
described in the mentioned passage " Planets " §4.1 " The role of gravity in the formation
and evolution of stars " of the
book "Gravity, black holes ..."). Planetary systems
have already been demonstrated around some stars, but most of the
time we see large planets larger than Jupiter . There may not be life on the
large gaseous planets of the Jupiter type, but rocky moons
may orbit around them , on which life may evolve ..? .. These
terrestrial " exonsons"May
increase" range "of possible life-giving bodies in the
universe ...
Recently it was discovered several planets
comparable to Earth orbiting probably in the" sphere of
life. "To prove the existence of life on these planets,
however, is extremely difficult. The only option is spectrometric
analysis electromagnetic radiation of these exoplanets. Here
the question arises as appropriate " biomarker
" or " biosignatury " - the kind of atoms
and molecules, the increased incidence could be specific to
life (discussed below in the passage
" Finding life in
the universe - biosignatury ") .
life-Giving
star and planets
In order for life (a " life-giving
" star and planet) to evolve on a planet
orbiting a particular star , the star and the planet must have
some specific properties:
Mass
of the star
The respective star must have a reasonable mass
(in the range of approx. 0.6 ¸ 10M ¤ ). It must not be too massive, because material
stars consume their basic fuel, hydrogen, too fast to
develop life on any planet. It must not be too light,
because the most important thermonuclear reaction H ® He (such
a pseudo-star is called a brown dwarf ) would
not be ignited and there would not be enough energy for
the processes of life formation, possibly. planets.
Normally functioning stars with a mass less than 60% of
the Sun's mass - red dwarfs- they have a
relatively low radiant power, so that the relevant
ecosphere (see below) would be very close and occupy a
narrow range; the probability of a suitable planet
occurring here would be relatively less. On the other
hand, such stars have a long-term stable luminosity (many
billions of years), so there would be enough time for the
origin and evolution of life ...
Stable luminosity of the star
The star must have an almost constant luminosity
for a sufficiently long time (min. 10 9 years) . It
must not be variable (this property is closely related to
the above mass of the star), as large temperature
fluctuations on the surrounding planets would not allow
the formation and maintenance of a stable life. In its early stages of evolution, life is very
"fragile", little resistant to changing
conditions. Evolution is not fast enough to adapt to
changing conditions and survive.
Loneliness
star
1. Star
should be "alone" in the sense that it should
not be part of the close binary or multiple systems. In
such multiple systems, for example. planets are subjected
to non-central and variable gravitational forces, so
there are no circular and long-term stable orbits of the
planets (the condition of the
following point " Planetary orbit " is
not met ) .
2. There should not be too massive stars
(with masses higher than about 10M ¤) in
the space environment for about tens of light years. ), which
would explode like supernovae, with the emitted
high-energy radiation "burning" the evolving
life on the planets around nearby stars. This condition
is most often met in the outer spiral arms of galaxies,
not near the center of galaxies, where there is a high
concentration of massive stars (and
there is a risk of hard radiation from a supermassive
black hole at the center of the galaxy) .
The
orbit of the planet
Planet enabling life must circulate at a suitable
distance from its star. The temperature on the
nearby planets is too high, preventing the formation and
duration of any complex compounds. On distant planets,
the temperature is too low, so complex biogenic reactions
do not take place. Only in a narrow range of distances -
in the so-called planetary ecosphere
or " habitable zone " *) are
suitable temperature conditions of about 10-40 o
C. In the solar system, the boundaries of the ecosphere
are estimated in the range of about 140-170 million km
from the Sun, ie o width of about 20%. Orbit in the life
zone should be close to circular,
because a strongly eccentric trajectory would lead to
large temperature fluctuations, unfavorable for the
origin and development of life.
*) For the forms known to us, the zone
of life is considered to be the area where water
can be in a liquid state .
Although so-called extremophiles are known here
on Earth , organisms living in very cold or hot places
could not have originated here - they evolved in places
with more favorable conditions and they managed to adapt
in search of living space.
Planet's
mass
Planets that are too light
will not hold their atmosphere due to their gravity. For
planets that are too massive, the vast atmosphere creates
too much pressure, which does not allow sufficient
mobility of the reagents. The appropriate mass of the
planet is between 3/4 and five times the mass of the
Earth. Heavier planets could perhaps have more favorable
conditions - a denser atmosphere, more intense volcanic
activity bringing in large amounts of needed minerals, a
stronger and longer-lasting magnetic field more
effectively protecting the atmosphere and surface from
the stellar wind (see below) .
The
atmosphere of the planet
A life-saving planet should have a gaseous envelope - an atmosphere
that maintains a relatively constant surface temperature,
protects the surface from the sharp impacts of a large
number of tiny cosmic bodies, and contains gases that may
be involved in the metabolism of living organisms. The
"thermal comfort" required for the origin and
development of life also depends on the composition and
density of the atmosphere, whether it contains
"greenhouse" gases (leading
to an increase in temperature) or
clouds reflecting back part of the parent star's
radiation.
The
magnetic field of the planet
"Mother" star supplies nearby planets not only
with life-giving light and heat radiation, but also with
streams of charged particles of the "stellar
wind". In addition, high-energy cosmic rays are
constantly coming from outer space. The planet's magnetic
field - the magnetosphere - can play an
important role in life in two ways:
1. It protects the ecosphere from the harmful
effects of ionizing cosmic radiation by deflecting
high-energy protons out of the planet.
2. Protects the atmosphere before
the destruction of the "stellar wind" - an
intense stream of charged particles coming from the
parent star. The magnetic field of terrestrial-type
planets is generated in the rotating semi-fluid outer
part of the nucleus , which acts as a
magnetohydrodynamic "dynamo". In the later
stages of the planet's evolution, this nucleus cools
and solidifies , causing the planet's magnetic
field to disappear *). For possibly.
life on the planet's surface has two adverse consequences
:
a) A large amount of hard ionizing
radiation , which is harmful to living
organisms, begins to enter the biosphere from outer space
.
b) An intense stream of charged particles
emitted by the star destroys the atmosphere
and can "spray" it into the surrounding
universe. The loss of the atmosphere leads to faster
evaporation of water, the steam of which is also carried
into space by the stellar wind. The loss of the
atmosphere and water is incompatible with the
continuation of life (at
least in the biochemical forms we know ) on such an affected
planet.
*) The time for which the liquid
core and magnetosphere will remain is longer the longer
the planet has more mass. About 4
billion years ago, Mars had a magnetic field, an
atmosphere, and probably liquid water on the surface.
However, due to the lower density, the core of Mars soon
cooled and solidified, the planet lost its magnetic field
and then the atmosphere and surface water; life there is
no longer possible ..
Biogenic
elements
Life can only be where biogenic elements
are present - hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
calcium, phosphorus, etc. So they must be planets around
the stars of the 2nd or next generation
. On the planets around the oldest stars of the 1st
generation, composed only of hydrogen and helium, life
cannot arise - at least not in the forms
weknowbased on organic carbon compounds
*), especially on their macromolecular structures
.
*) Carbon - a basic biogenic
element
Carbon with four valence electrons has the
richest of all elements, easy and stable bonds with other
light elements (H, O, N, P, ...), including the
possibility of forming long chains and
cycles up to macromolecular levels. The binding energy
for the formation or decomposition of carbon molecules is
of a suitable size to form compounds that are
sufficiently stable and reactive. Many carbon chains are
readily soluble in water. Chemists and biochemists are
very skeptical about the
possibility of a silicon- based life
(which has similar chemical properties to carbon),
although silicon is significantly more abundant in space
than carbon. Silicon does not provide nearly as diverse a
possibility of easy bonds with other light elements as
carbon. More complex silicon macromolecules are insoluble
or decomposable in water. No significant amount of more
complex silicon compounds was observed in space, while
relatively complex amounts of carbon compounds (eg
alcohols, amino acids, polycyclic hydrocarbons, ...) were
observed. That is why we know life based on carbon.
From a physico-chemical point of view,
however, it is possible that life in some places in the
universe could arise on quite different principles than
our current earthly life. Interesting sci-fian
alternative could be the possibility of the origin and
evolution of purely electrical
processing of information signals on an inorganic
basis ..? ..
Water
<--> volcanic activity
The formation of life based on organic compounds requires
the presence of water , as a liquid
polar solvent with suitable properties,
in which the (bio) chemical processes that life needs and
on which it is based can take place. In addition to this
basic life-giving function , water has
another meaning - it helps maintain the chemical and
thermal homeostasis of the planet's
atmosphere. Volcanic activity , although
locally destructive , has an overall positive
significance for life by bringing the necessary biogenic
from the depths of the planet to the surface (and the
seabed) mineral nutrients
. However, in addition to minerals, volcanoes expel large
amounts of gases, especially carbon dioxide
and sulfur dioxide. When this carbon dioxide accumulates
in the atmosphere, it acts as a " greenhouse
gas "; if the planet orbits closer to the
central star, at the lower edge of the "habitable
zone", the temperature of the
atmosphere will gradually increase until
it can eventually reach several hundred degrees. The
presence of a sufficient amount of water
on the surface can save the planet from the harmful
greenhouse effect . The water from the sea evaporates,
the steam rises into the atmosphere where it condenses
and rains on the surface in the form of drops. At the
same timewashes out carbon dioxide (and also sulfur dioxide) from
the atmosphere . Rainwater seeps into the soil
and rocks, then drains streams and rivers back into the
oceans. Dissolved CO 2 from the atmosphere is mineralized
during this process to an insoluble form (mostly calcium carbonate, sulfur dioxide to
calcium sulfate ...) . This equilibrium
process (with only small
fluctuations) has been going on
here on Earth for hundreds of millions of years.
However, the neighboring planet Venus
, very similar to Earth in its parameters ("sister Earth"),
had a different fate. Initially, there were probably also
large areas of surface water. However, higher
temperatures due to the greater proximity to the Sun
gradually caused the loss of surface water
and thus the disappearance of rain in
the atmosphere. Intense volcanic activity then gradually infested
the atmosphere with a large concentration of
greenhouse gases (CO 2 , SO 2 , ...) , which "had nothing" to continuously
remove. And so the atmosphere and the surface of Venus
gradually became an inhospitable hot wasteland,
absolutely lifeless .... .....
It can be expected that similar
laws will work on other terrestrial planets ...
To summarize briefly,
the conditions for the origin and evolution of life can be
expected on rocky ( terrestrial ) planets orbiting almost circular orbits around smaller
stars (2nd or 3rd generation, main
sequence) at appropriate distances - in the
" zone of life ". They can be
Earth-like planets in stars like our Sun. But perhaps even more
suitable conditions for long-term evolution can be expected in
somewhat larger planets about 2-5 times more massive than Earth (sometimes referred to in the literature on exoplanets
and astrobiology as " Superearths ") ,
orbiting smaller stars - red dwarfs. Such stars
have a long-term stable luminosity (for many billions of years) and
heavier terrestrial planets have maintained a strong
magnetic field for a long time (also
for many billions of years) , protecting
their atmosphere from being "blown away" by the stellar
wind. So, in general, there would be enough time
for the origin and evolution of life into higher forms, including
intelligent ... Other candidates for life bearers could be
the months around large exoplanets.
Even
with the very specific requirements mentioned above, there are
probably millions of stars in our Galaxy with suitable
properties, around which they orbit at appropriate distances from
planets of the required sizes. And if life originated about 4
billion years ago from inanimate matter on a tiny cosmic
"powder," which is our Earth from the cosmic scale,
there is no reason why it could not have originated elsewhere
in the universe , albeit at a different time and in a
different form. After all, the natural laws by
which matter is governed are the same everywhere
in the universe . So we can assume that life is perhaps
in many places in the distant universe ..? .. Nobody
knows yet ... - see also the following passages on the origin and
development of life (" How
did life originate?"," Intelligent
life in space? ") .
When could life have
appeared in the universe?
From the temporal point of view of the cosmological
evolution of the universe (§5.4"
Standard
cosmological model. The Big Bang. Shaping the structure of the
universe.
"Monohraph" Gravity, black holes ... ") it is clear that in the early space - life was not
possible in the infernal hearth of the hadron and lepton eras, or
the era of radiation, and even in the first 200 million years of
the era of matter, when mining elements other than hydrogen and
helium did not yet exist, life could not exist. generations that
thermonuclear "boiled" carbon and other heavier
elements (§4.1 " "same books) , 2nd and 3rd
generation stars could form and around them planetary
systems containing biogenic elements . There, under the
other conditions discussed above, life could fortunately begin to
evolve. Earlier stars were larger in the first few billion years.
Unstable and have a relatively short life cycle, it can be
expected that only in the 3rd generation of stars, after about 5
billion years since the beginning of the universe, smaller stars
have formed that are able to live for a very long time, so they
may be stable for a long time on some of their
planets. conditions enabling the undisturbed
evolution of life So that only in the later stages of the
cosmological evolution of the universe is there a higher
probability of a wider "expansion" of life ..? ..
Note.: And in the future very late
stages of the universe, when all the stars will burn out and new ones will no
longer form - on the threshold of the " thermal death
" of the universe (§5.6 " Future
of the universe. Arrow of time. Hidden matter. ") - life will not be
possible again. ! ..
Global "zones of
life" in the universe
In which parts of the vast and diverse universe is the origin,
maintenance and development of life likely? A more detailed
analysis shows that it is not everywhere that, from a
global point of view, there are only relatively small demarcated
" zones of life " in space , while
outside these areas, for astrophysical reasons, the conditions
are not suitable for a more complex life. Either there are n't
enough stars
, which makes it unlikely that "life - giving" stars
and planets will occur. Or, conversely, places with high-density
stars , especially massive stars, which often explode as
supernovae, are potentially dangerous to life
because the intense high-energy supenova radiation
"sterilizes" a wide area of ??decades of light (see " Biological significance of cosmic rays ", " Deadly Cosmic radiation
") . On the other hand, suitable
material for building planets and building life occurs only where
enough stars have already exploded and enriched gas clouds with
heavier elements (" Astrophysical significance of supernovae ") .life will not be able to
occur in the central parts, where "every moment" (every thousand years) some
supernova explodes devastatingly, not even on the periphery,
where there is not enough "building material". But
rather somewhere "halfway to the edge", in spiral arms.
In our Milky Way galaxy, this "habitable" zone of life
is estimated to be in the range of about 20,000-30,000
light-years from the galactic center.
Note: The
situation is more complicated in collapsing galaxies
, where the rapid formation of massive stars exploding like
supernovae will probably cancel possible zones of life even at
greater distances from the center of the galaxy. Habitable zones
(local in the planetary system around the stars, and global in
the outer universe)
not static, but how astrophysical situation evolves, changing
the size and location of the habitable zone. Some disappear, in
other places new ones emerge - again only temporary
. Whether life really develops there is a matter of the complex
interplay of many conditions, coincidences and circumstances. And
the extent to which this life could develop is largely determined
by the duration of the given life zone.
How did life originate ?
The question " How did life originate?
" (Here on Earth) is one of the oldest questions of humanity. In the
pre-scientific period, generations of philosophers, theologians
and thinkers in various directions sought an answer to it - at
that time with illusory, subjective, religious and generally
unbelievable results. From the 19th century. this question has
become the subject of objective scientific research by
biologists, chemists and physicists.
The real " mechanism
" of the origin of life as such (so far we mean on our Earth) ,
has not yet been explained in full detail, partly still shrouded
in mystery. Three basic hypotheses are discussed :
1.
Evolutionary (which already has the character of a
well-developed theory); 2.
Panspermia - the cosmic origin of life; 3. Creation
- religious creature.
1. Abiogenesis - evolution
From a general scientific point of view, the evolutionary
theory of the spontaneous origin of life from inanimate
matter by chemical processes here on Earth, called abiogenesis
, seems to be the most plausible (AIOparin
and JBHaldane laid the foundations of this theory in the 1930s).
.Holdein, S.Miller, L.Orgel, S.Fox, S.Altman, T.Cech and others) . Life has gradually evolved into current forms by evolution
from the simplest forms to more complex organisms, where random
deviations and changes - mutations - under the
influence of natural selectionled to a
preference for positive change. The influence of the environment
in which a species lives favors some of its characteristics and
abilities, so it gradually begins to change into a form that
gives it a better chance of longer survival and development.
Each subsequent stage "builds"
on the experience of the previous stage, proven structures,
mechanisms and principles are transferred and repeated in the
next stages of development. The founder of the theory of
evolution was Ch.Darwin (see below) .
Although evolutionary abiogenesis is the most
sophisticated theory of the origin of life, there are still a
number of unresolved questions. According to some biologists,
this theory faces, among other things, the problem of a very
small probability of such a complex process as to allow enough
time for the Earth to form and cool down (primordial
life appeared on Earth relatively soon, about 3.5 billion years
ago) ; the formation of the first cell had
to be preceded by a complex and time - consuming " biocosmic
preparation "- prebiotic evolution - see below.
Such an extremely small probability could
be expected if the original cells were formed by purely
random chemical combinations of molecules *). In reality,
however, there were probably some regulatory selection
effects in this process that allowed the evolution of
more complex molecules. directing selective effects may partly be
caused by certain autocatalytic properties of the
polymer chains of macromolecules, as well may relate to
thermodynamically unbalanced processes in complex reaction
mixtures. For thermodynamic reasons, such phenomena being studied
called. synergetics which gave particularly I.Prigogin (see Section 6 below "Physics and God
") .
* * . ......... .......
This comparison is misleading
, even nonsensical! Evolution worked at the beginning of life:
the first simplest version that allowed reproduction became
successful, further development did not begin again from the
beginning, but by improving the previous best version.
After all, even the mentioned car was not created in a modern
complex form with electronic control and a number of refined
technologies. The first vehicles were very simple, even here for
many decades "evolution" worked (but with the hands of
erudite designers - "intelligent designers" ...), under
the selection pressure of efficiency, perfection and price.
Prebiotic evolution of
matter
¨ Origin of the universe,
particles and light nuclei
The preparation of "material" for
the origin and development of life basically began at the very origin
of the universe (for more details
see §5.4 " Standard cosmological model. Big
Bang " in the already
mentioned monograph " Gravity, black holes and the
physics of spacetime ") .
The Universe was formed about 13-15 billion years ago in an
extremely dense and hot state called the Big Bang . In
the first microseconds, at many trillions of degrees, the
universe was in a special state called quark-gluon plasma
- a stormy mixture of electrons, quarks and gluons, neutrinos and
other particles. As the universe expanded rapidly, the
temperature and density of matter dropped rapidly. About ten
thousandths of a second after the creation of the universe, the
temperature dropped below about 10 trillion degrees. Quarks u
and d with the action of a strong interaction
(mediated by gluons) combined into triplets ( uud ) - protons
and ( udd ) - neutrons. Protons have
been preserved to this day mainly in the form of hydrogen
nuclei , they are also contained in the nuclei of all
heavier elements. The neutrons, which were born together with the
protons by hadronization of the quark-gluon plasma, faced a
double fate. Most of them were converted to protons, electrons
and (anti) neutrinos by a weak interaction. Some neutrons fused
with protons to form nuclei, mainly helium ,
deuterium and lithium.
¨ Formation
of nuclei of atoms and heavier elements
All heavier nuclei was thermonuclear synthesized
through the stellar interior (see " The role of
gravity as the origin and evolution of stars " or " We are descendants of stars! "), which began to form
about 200 million years after the beginning of the universe
(after the end of the era of radiation and the period of
"cosmic darkness"); in the stars, this nucleosynthesis
continues to this day. The first generations of stars were very
massive - stellar giants - and lived only relatively
short, only a few hundred thousand years. After consuming nuclear
"fuel" they exploded like supernovae
and ejected clouds of hot gases, enriched with heavy nuclei,
which they "boiled" by nucleosynthesis - nuclei of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, silicon, phosphorus,
iron, ... etc, as well as a number of heavier and radioactive
elements (including transurans).
Atomic nuclei formed inside stars are originally
"bare", without electron shells - gamma radiation and
sharp collisions at high temperatures do not allow the formation
of a permanent electron shell, electrons are immediately ejected
from the atomic shell, atoms are completely ionized . In
the ejected clouds, these nuclei enter cold interstellar space,
where the nuclei capture their free electrons with their
electrical attraction, filling them with electron orbits to form complete
atoms of elements . One (or several) stellar giant on
the inside of one of the spiral arms of the Milky Way, which
exploded as a supernova about 7 billion years ago, was
important to our Earth and solar system.and from the cloud
ejected by it, enriched with heavier and biogenic elements, the
germinal nebula for the Sun and our entire solar system
condensed. We don't know where the remnants of this
previous star are, it probably ended up as a black hole ...
¨ Formation of molecules in space
The probability of collision and merging of
two or more atoms in a sparse gaseous state is very small. Solid dust
particles condensed in an ejected nebula are very important
for the formation of molecules from atoms in space . There, the
atoms are close to each other and can exchange electrons - chemical
reactions and the synthesis of molecules
from atoms in interstellar space take place on grains of
dust .
They can also be stimulated by radiation from surrounding
stars and cosmic radiation - photocatalysis . By
interacting with radiation , neutral atoms become ions
, which, thanks to attractive electric forces, are able to carry
out reactions and bonds to molecules even at very low
temperatures (at which normal chemical reactions do not take
place). Gas envelopes can
function as "space chemical laboratories" around some
stars, especially around red giants, rich in carbon and oxygen.
There are large differences in temperature and pressure in the
individual areas of the envelope and there is intense radiation.
The kinetic energy of the thermal motion of atoms overcomes the
repulsive electric forces, and the atoms can approach by sharing
the valence electrons and merging them into molecules.
Temperatures are higher in the interior and compounds of silicon,
magnesium, aluminum, sodium, etc. may be formed. In the lower
compartments, compounds with longer carbon chains may be formed.
Intense chemical reactions then occur in protoplanetary disks
and the planets formed from them around stars,
where there is sufficient density and often favorable
temperature.
Using radio astronomy spectrometry, a large number of
molecules not only inorganic (water, carbon dioxide, ammonia,
...) but also more than 100 different types of
"organic" molecules composed of hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen were discovered in interstellar clouds. Some
are composed of more than 10 atoms, in addition to methane, there
are also polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols
and the like.
¨ Synthesis of more complex
molecules on Earth
Thus, simple organic (prebiotic) molecules have been (and still
are) in large numbers in space. They were therefore also included
in the protoplanetary disk, from which planets,
moons, asteroids and comets in the solar system formed; from
where they got to the planets. On Earth, other more complex
compounds formed spontaneously during the first billion years of
its existence. The environment at that time was very stormy with
intense volcanic activity, meteor bombardment, storm surges of
static electricity, intense ultraviolet radiation. Due to photochemical
reactionsreactive inorganic molecules as well as smaller
organic molecules were formed, including formaldehyde, amino
acids, lipids, carbohydrates and other molecules. Chemical
processes that produce life-important substances could also have
occurred with repeated asteroid impacts. At that time, the
atmosphere was almost free of oxygen, but volcanic activity and
asteroid impacts contained large amounts of methane, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, and more.
Hydrolysis of hydrogen cyanide could yield simple organic
compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The most
important are amino acids , whose chains form proteins
of different species in different orders , and carbohydrates
, which could later form RNA bases (see
below).. Hydrogen cyanide (and its
derivatives) was not toxic to the primary emerging precursors of
life (on the contrary, oxygen and even
water was toxic, which could decompose the primary molecules by
hydrolysis) . The initial steps of chemical
reactions may have formed in volcanic dust. Life could then arise
from endless variants of gradual chemical reactions, some of
which were irreversible. Only later did water become the basic
environment for the functioning of life.
The basic factor enabling the origin of
life here on Earth and stimulating its evolution and diversity
was the presence of a sufficient amount of water
*) in the liquid state. Water is the basic solvent
for complex carbon compounds, which can react
chemically here and create other more complex organic substances.
With the evaporation of water in shallow lakes, the density of
molecules increased, which facilitated chemical reactions and
allowed the synthesis of even very complex substances. Cosmic
radiation probably also played an important role in the
origin and evolution of life - see §1.6
"Ionizing radiation", part " Cosmic radiation ", passage " Biological significance of cosmic
radiation " in the
monograph "Nuclear physics and physics of ionizing
radiation".
*) In the first periods after
the formation of the Earth, there was no water
on its surface . Most of the water came to Earth about 4 billion
years ago from the so-called Kuiper Beltice bodies in
the outer part of the solar system (these ice bodies form the
nuclei of future comets). With their attraction, Jupiter and
Saturn pull ice bodies out of the Kuiper belt towards the Sun.
Some of them fell on Earth, where about 4 billion years ago there
was a "big bombing" lasting about 50-200 million years.
This brought water to Earth, water vapor condensed and rained on
the Earth's surface. It rained for millions of years, creating
the first primates in which the water was not salty.
Another part of the water, coming from the interior of the Earth
from volcanic activity, had dissolved salt.
Volcanic activity ,
supplying standing water with hot springs containing many
different dissolved minerals, may have led to conditions that
allowed prebiotic evolution. And later these waters could create
a suitable environment for the origin and development of the
first cellular organisms.
The theory of life in a suitable aquatic
environment is certainly correct in principle, but it
has one drawback: in large amounts of water, the necessary
molecules can disperse too quickly
to interact and form more complex structures (such as cell
membranes) and primary metabolism. More favorable conditions in
this respect could be in volcanic water lakes, which repeatedly dry
out and flood again . In relatively dry
periods, they can be made from simpler moleculespolymerization
to form more complex molecules. In "wet"
periods, these complex molecules can migrate between different
sites, and in subsequent drying periods they can concentrate and
further interact to form even more complex structures. The
minerals present there, such as clays , can act as
carriers and catalysts for the formation of complex organic
molecules.
Origin and evolution
of primordial cells on Earth
Every living cell , even the simplest bacteria,
contains a large number of ingenious chemical mechanisms - some
kind of "molecular machinery",
which distribute nutrients and convert them into energy, transmit
chemical and electrical signals, transmit and copy information
using genetic molecules; and perform a number of other highly
organized activities (cells, their
structure and activity are discussed in detail in §5.2,
monograph" Nuclear physics and physics of ionizing radiation
", section" Cells - basic
units of living organisms
") . It is extremely difficult to
imagine how such complex systems could have formed spontaneously
from much simpler inanimate matter about 3.5 billion years ago.
The most difficult problem is explaining the origin of
organizational and an information genetic mechanism based on DNA
( deoxyribonucleic acid). The direct creation of a
structure as complex as DNA does not seem likely. Evolutionary
biologists have come to the conclusion that early life could be
based on RNA ( ribonucleic acid) , or
their more reactive derivatives, the first simpler molecules of
which could have arisen spontaneously from prebiotic molecules -
the " RNA world " or the
" RNA-peptide world " (suitable
combinations of peptides can produce enzymes
that catalyze RNA copying and other reactions) . However, RNA molecules may not have been the first,
more types of molecules may have competed for the origin of life
..? ..
Early ancestors of today's cells - protocells
- they were probably just a kind of "tufts" of ribose
molecules, polymerized into short sections of RNA, coated
together with water into a simple phospholipid membrane. Under
appropriate conditions, RNA molecules are able to make copies of
themselves and thus "multiply". Replicating RNA
molecules encoded properties that were "genetically"
passed on to the next generation. Mutations that
occurred randomly through various influences (ionizing radiation,
chemicals, "copying" errors) led to changes, of which
the "lucky" ones allowed these early cells to adapt
better to the environment and compete with each other by natural
selection ( Darwinian evolution ). . Only later did DNA
develop into a suitable combination of RNA molecules , has taken
on the role of primary genetic molecule for long-term storage of
genetic information throughout the life of the organism and for
transmission to future generations. RNA began to function as a
"bridge" between DNA and proteins (for
more details see again " Cells
- basic units of living organisms ", passage " DNA, RNA, proteins,
chromosomes, telomeres ") .
Thus, prokaryotic cells (without nucleus and without
organelles) with cyclically arranged DNA were first formed ;
later, more complex eukaryotic cells developed with a
linearly arranged DNA in the form of a double helix located in
the nucleus and with a series of organelles performing specific
functions of cell metabolism.
Evolution of more
advanced organisms
Primary life forms, unicellular prokaryotic
microorganisms, originally evolved on Earth in an almost
oxygen-free environment. However, cyanobacteria and some types of
bacteria were capable of photosynthesis *). Over
the course of billions of years, they have gradually metabolized
methane and carbon dioxide and enriched the atmosphere with oxygen
; it had a negative effect on anerobic cells by oxidizing their
biogenic molecules. However, due to its high reactivity, oxygen
has enabled the evolution of more complex organisms.
*) Growths of cyanobacteria and bacteria
lived in large numbers in the shallows of warm seas and enriched
the Earth's atmosphere with oxygen. They are found in biogenic
sediments called stromatolites (Greek stroma
= layer, lithos = stone) from the Precambrian period about
3.5 billion years ago. Remnants of stromatolite colonies still
survive in the shallows of warm seas, especially off the coast of
Australia.
Under the influence
of this change in external conditions in the period about 1.5
billion years ago, a new type of cells developed - eukaryotic
(for more details, see again " Cells
- the basic units of living organisms ") . This so-called eukaryogenesis
probably took place by fusion of two or more
cell types, which then lived in endosymbiosis .
The original anaerobic, hydrogen-metabolizing cell absorbed
another smaller cell, capable of processing oxygen with
respiration to produce energy, gaining an evolutionary advantage.
As they evolved, they evolved from the absorbed cellsorganelles
. The mitochondria of animal cells were probably formed
by the uptake (phagocytosis) of bacteria, and the chloroplasts of
plant cells evolved from cyanobacteria. At the same time, DNA
molecules dispersed in the cytoplasm began to clump together,
encapsulate the membrane, and form the cell nucleus .
About 600 million years ago, unicellular
eukaryotic microorganisms began to associate to form the first multicellular
organisms. The cells in the colony partially retained their
individuality, but specialized and interconnected mechanically
and functionally, giving the ensemble an improvement and
selection advantage. This allowed for far greater diversification
of life and acceleration of evolution.
Unicellular organisms (including early multicellular)have
been propagated by division , in which the
genetic information is only copied and changes can occur
only rarely and accidentally as a result of mutations .
An important acceleration of evolution occurred in the
emergence of sexual reproduction, in which genes
" mix " and create new combinations ,
which then participate in natural selection - many of which may
prove more advantageous in a changing environment.
Evolution to the Homo
Sapiens Stage - Intelligent Life
As abstract thinking evolved from the great
diversity of more advanced organisms - from life controlled by
biochemical processes and simple reflexes and instincts and
"consciousness", which created a species capable of
developing complex technologies, learning about nature and the
universe, searching for its own origin ..? .. It stemmed from the
ability to gain knowledge from others - using
this common well of knowledge and experience not
only to solve specific life situations , but also finding new
solutions, generalizations, innovations. The decisive factor was communication
skills , language and writing - to teach
carefully and accurately the acquired skills and knowledge of the
next generation. For truly objective and true knowledge
it was important to abandon religious and other superstitions and
dogmas from the pre-scientific period and replace them with the
results of careful scientific research. It took place in the
17th-19th. century and it continues so far ...
From the dark periods of the cruel struggle
of all against all (where the villains
and egoists usually won ) , a
society divided into rich and poor has survived. And in many
countries, even completely meaningless religious dogmas, in the
name of which stupid people are able to kill their
neighbors - instead of cooperating with them for the
benefit of a good cause ...
Regularities and
coincidences in evolution
For the very evolution of various species-
Darwin's theory *) of species evolution based on mutations and
natural selection - there is now a great deal of evidence in
paleontological findings and biological studies of contemporary
life. Understanding the internal mechanisms of inheritance,
mutations and evolution is fundamentally refined by molecular
biology and genetics.
*) Ch.Darwin arrived at the laws of
evolution in an empirical way , based on careful
scientific observations and their penetrating analysis. He did
not know the essence of these laws, because at that time
(1820-1860) only the morphology and external manifestations of
organisms were known. This essence is explained only by cellular
and molecular biology. Nevertheless, from a global
perspective, Darwin correctly explained some of the hitherto
mysterious circumstances of living nature, the origin of which
was often often referred to in the transcendent and religious
spheres:
- He showed the biological kinship of
all living things as "shoots of an evolutionary tree."
- Explained the existence and origin of purposeful
properties of living organisms: More purposeful
properties are more likely to prevail and spread because
they increase the chances of survival and reproduction of their
carriers (while ineffectiveness is not maintained for too long).
- He indicated the evolutionary connection of
living and inanimate nature(Darwin also dealt with
geology). Every creation of nature is something that has a
history of many mechanisms. Admirable and beautiful forms of
life, including higher animals and man, have evolved from simple
beginnings based on the laws of nature
(including the cruel phenomena of struggle, hunger, death)
operating all around us. And this history - evolution - still
continues now.
Natural selection
often took difficult paths, in which chance also
played a major role*) - eg whether a newly emerging more viable
species gets into suitable conditions and takes over or not. Some
more complex structures and mechanisms did not necessarily evolve
directly under "selection pressure", but somehow
secondarily - by combining previously developed structures that
originally performed different and independent functions. When
they later merged and began to collaborate, they enabled the
emergence of new functions and properties that would be difficult
to explain by straightforward evolution and selection.
*) It can be said with some exaggeration
that evolution has often behaved like a "fuser" or a
do-it-yourselfer - it creates something, then uses it for a long
time in many generations and tries it in various places. Only the
pressure of the environment or random influences will select the
variant that is most suitable for the existing environment at a
given time. If this fails, another variant is tried ... A
thousand or a million times during evolution, life found itself
at a "crossroads", from which it could set out in various
ways determined by external conditions, internal
mechanisms and natural selection. These various paths were mostly
"blind", but some of them were successful and led to
the diversification of life . The current
biological set of life forms (including our human existence) is
the work of a huge interplay of coincidences ..!
..
The early days of
life took place with the help of chemically unstable materials,
so no structures from this period have been preserved - we have
no fossils or fossils that have been preserved from later life
forms. In addition to theoretical models based on molecular
biochemistry, the only way to "reconstruct" the origin
of life is to experimentally mimic the conditions in the
laboratory at the time, in order to create a replicating artificial
organism . These attempts are very difficult, but
promising partial results are gradually being achieved.
2. Panspermia -
the cosmic origin of life
The problem of "lack of time" needed for the origin of
life here on Earth is partially circumvented (postponed) by a
hypothesis called panspermia (this name was introduced in 1901 by the Swedish chemist
S.Arrhenius, in connection with before we discuss here) . According to her, primitive life originated over the
past many billions of years somewhere else in
the distant universe in a suitable planetary system, after which
its germs (spores - panspermia ) get into outer space, spread
through spaceand as soon as they reach a planet with
favorable conditions, they multiply there ("colonize"
the planet) and evolve possibly. even into higher forms of life.
In this way, about 4 billion years ago, panspermia with meteorite
impacts could reach Earth.
The idea of ??panspermia
has some serious pitfalls. It is not clear, for example, how the
germs of life could survive long-term irradiation with hard
cosmic rays during their long journey through interstellar space (they could perhaps be protected inside bodies the size
of meteorites, asteroids or comets ..? ..; to overcome
interstellar distances in a reasonable time).
Furthermore, the age of the solar system is only about three
times smaller than the entire universe. The "time
advantage" is therefore not so great as to lead to a
significantly increased probability that the origin of life took
place elsewhere much earlier. But if the idea of ??panspermia
were to be confirmed, then in combination with abiogenesis it
could mean that life could be much more widespread in
the universe than previously thought ..? ..
3. Creation -
creationism - "intelligent design"
The creationist idea, according to which life was created
by a higher infinitely intelligent being, God ,
is the oldest and in the pre-scientific period was actually the
only idea. Although newer scientific knowledge has refuted it, it
is still sometimes presented from time to time. Due to its
metaphysical nature, unreliability and absence of any real
explanation, we will not consider it further.
Creationism usually has a dogmatic-religious
subtext : that life and man were created by God directly
as they are; with all the details created by the
"intelligent designer". Dogmatically oriented
theologians and church leaders (as well as many believers) see in
evolutionary theory a directendangering faith in the
creation of life and man by God and therefore promoting
creationist ideas. However, more enlightened theologians do not
see such a sharp contradiction here, they leave the question in
the competent hands of naturalists (biologists, chemists,
physicists, paleontologists) and in case of confirmation and
verification of evolutionary theory they are willing to recognize
evolution as " God's method of life
creation " texts.
The occasional name
(phrase propagated by creationists) " scientific
creationism " or " creationist science
" is a contradiction ( contradiction),
a combination of two conflicting terms. The basic principle of
science is to explain nature and the universe using observable or
testable basic mechanisms. Proponents of creationism give no real
explanation, all referring to the transcendent, to
unsubstantiated and unreliable superstitions and religious
legends (such as "Genesis") from the pre-scientific
period, which they interpret literally. Real efforts to explain
try to challenge and question, absolutizing weaknesses and as yet
unexplained details. They do not use the scientific method, they
only "borrow" from science technical terms and concepts
(often without their deeper understanding), which they take out
of context and purposefully manipulate in order to challenge
evolutionary theory. The most dogmatic creationists even promote
the view of the "young Earth"
The
search for life in space - "biosignatures"
It is very difficult to prove the existence
of life on other planets or moons in the solar system, or even on
exoplanets. For solar system planets and their moons, direct
missions of space probes equipped with cameras and special
analyzers can solve this. For exoplanets, the only option is spectrometric
analysis of electromagnetic radiation. This raises the
question of a suitable " biomarker " or " biosignature " - a type of
molecule that is specific to life. B iomarker
or biosignatura is a material
phenomenon or structure that provides the scientific evidence or
indication for life
, present or past (a kind of " marks " or " signatures
" of life) . These are such specific,
more complex organic molecules and structures whose abiotic
formation is unlikely or impossible without the presence of life.
It should be noted that we do not know with certainty that the
circumstances are universal manifestations of life
, which are given only peculiarities and coincidences
in the origin and evolution of life on earth ..? ..
Such accidentally
caused earthly laws of evolution, for example. L-chirality of
amino acids (the discussed in §5.2 of the monograph
"Nuclear physics and physics of ionizing radiation",
part "Cells - the basic unit of living organisms "passage" Proteins
").
These" soft "circumstances
however remotely examine can not. Specific manifestations of
intense biological activity could be the chemical
composition of the atmosphere of distant planets:
" Organic "substances such as
methane, amino acids, alone per se are not unique -
widely observed in interstellar nebulae, wherein the formed
photocatalytic reactions of inorganic atoms. it is contemplated
that suitable molecules for spectroscopic detection possible
traces of life - " biosignatury " - could be
the simultaneous presence of oxygen and methane, or carbon
dioxide and methane, organic nitrogen compounds,more
specifically chlorophyll ..? ..
Life in space is undoubtedly completely different
from our earthly. Knowing extraterrestrial life forms in the
future can reveal completely different shapes, compositions,
functions, as well as other ways of coding the information of
living organisms.
The
Possibility of Living in Space
In such a vast universe, with billions of galaxies and trillions
of stars in planetary systems, it is highly likely that all
physically possible forms of life have emerged in
various places over billions of years . But why is the " universe
silent " - why do we not observe any manifestations
or signals of extraterrestrial life?
" Where the hell are
all the aliens? " - we may ask along with
the prominent nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi. The discrepancy
between the expected abundance of extraterrestrial life in space
and the absence of any evidence is sometimes called the " Fermi
paradox ." In terms of time ,
there can be two variants of the answer: 1. They have
not yet been born; 2.
They are already extinct. And from the
cosmological space-time point of view, there is
a third variant: 3. There may be many of them, but huge distances - space-time
barriers - make contact practically impossible.
There are plenty of habitable planets in
the current universe, the universe may be "teeming"
with life, but mostly only at the level of our bacteria or
archaea - and we don't "talk" much with them ... For
life to reach higher stages or even intelligent forms, billions
of years of evolution are needed even under favorable
conditions .
The difficulty of finding
extraterrestrial life is briefly discussed in the
following passage, " Intelligent Life in Space
":
Intelligent life in space? Alien
civilizations?
Planets orbit, with suitable living conditions or millions of
billions of years older than Earth, orbit many
stars . It is therefore possible that possible life there during
the course of evolution has also reached higher forms,
and intelligent creatures have evolved who could
form the respective communities - extraterrestrial
civilizations . However, discovering such hypothetical
extraterrestrial civilizations (and possibly establishing some
communication with them) is extremely difficult. The first major
obstacle here is a huge space-time barrier :
1. Interstellar distances to the nearest
potentially possible places of extraterrestrial civilizations and
the electromagnetic signal exceed many decades, and many tens or
hundreds of thousands of years! The time retardation of
communication can be comparable to the very existence of
individual civilizations.
2. The huge time scales of
stellar evolution mean that potential civilizations in
individual systems can " miss " many
millions of years.
How many extraterrestrial
civilizations are? The
possibilities of the origin and existence of life in space were
dealt with in detail by FDDrake, who in 1961 compiled the
well-known Drake equation
, which determines (or estimates) the number of
extraterrestrial intelligent civilizations, capable of
interstellar communication, located in our Galaxy:
N = R *. f p
. n e . f l
. f i . f c
. L , where:
N is the resulting expected number of advanced
civilizations capable of interstellar communication;
R * - increase in the number of new stars in the galaxy per
unit time (approx. 10 / year);
f p - proportion of stars that have planetary systems
around them (0.1 ¸ 0.5);
n e - the average number of planets in this planetary
system on which living conditions are suitable (0.1¸ 2);
f l - the probability that life will actually evolve on
these suitable planets (?? 0,01 ¸ 1);
f i - the probability that on these planets with living
organisms life will develop to intelligent forms (?? 10 -7 ¸ 1);
f c - share from the previous result of intelligent life
forms that have reached the ability of active interstellar
communication (?? 0.01 ¸ 1);
L - duration (lifetime) of a civilization capable of
interstellar communication (?? 10 3 ¸ 10 9 years).
Due to the ignorance of a number of
variables, this equation provides only a great deala
rough estimate of how many advanced civilizations could
exist in our galaxy. Drake himself estimated N » 10, other authors'
estimates range from a very wide range from 10 -8 to 10 9 , ie from the
practical impossibility of an extraterrestrial civilization to a
universe" teeming with "life (see below the skeptical
reflection" The Uniqueness of Life? - a
series of very unlikely coincidences ") ...
The only
known way of effective long - distance communication are
electromagnetic waves - radio signals of
suitable frequencies or wavelengths (such a
suitable wavelength is about 18-21cm - hydrogen and OH radiation),
which penetrate well into space and atmosphere and are detectable
by large radio telescopic antennas. Possibly. intense directed laser
beams . Since the 1960s, some projects (SETI-Search for
Extraterrestial Intelligence, FÉNIX, SERENGI) have been running
to detect such radio signals from space that could not be
explained by natural astrophysical sources, but would be of
"artificial origin" - they came from a possible
extraterrestrial civilization. . So far to no avail
... And also attempts to actively transmit radio signals (or even messages on material carriers in space probes
heading outside the solar system - a kind of space "bottle
mail", but on a vastly larger "ocean" of space)to
distant stars; here, given our inadequacy and the above-mentioned
facts, the negative result is not surprising.
However, all
attempts to capture the signals of extraterrestrial civilizations
are based on the assumption that such intelligent life has
embarked on the path of technical civilization ,
as has recently happened here on Earth. However, this is not the
only way to develop an advanced and intelligent life. An
alternative could be the path of purely biological
development and improvement of living creatures. We can
imagine, for example, the civilization of highly intelligent
dolphins meditating quietly in the paradise of tropical seas ...
However, even deeper thinking, it can be assumed that if such
creatures have enough time and objectively know the fragility and
time constraintsnatural conditions of their
existence, will eventually lead to the need for such technical
development that would allow them to survive
even the radical changes in these conditions on a given planet
around a particular star (including the final stages of star
evolution) that will inevitably occur in the future!
Alternatively, moving to another planet at another star ..? ..
Some advanced civilizations may have reached the stage of non-biological
- post-biological evolution and expand into the
surrounding universe (as discussed below in the
paragraph " Artificial Intelligence and Transhumanism - the
lawful outcome of biological evolution? ") .
A visit to extraterrestrial
civilizations, " ufons" ?
In our brief discussion, we have deliberately
avoided many unsubstantiated and unreliable assumptions in the
science fiction literature and in various conspiracy materials.
Alien civilizations are often associated with the phenomenon of UFOs
( U nidentified F
lying O bject) - reports
of sightings of mysterious moving objects in the sky *), disk
"flying saucers" or other shapes. Conspiracy reports of
contacts with aliens are, of course, made up .
After all, the "ufological" idea that aliens could
visit us in biological bodies is completely unrealistic - if at
all, it would necessarily be a robotic
electro-mechanical machines ..! ..
*) These reports (of which there are
already tens of thousands) are mostly based on subjective
personal testimonies. Leaving aside intentionally
fictional assertions, it could be an optical illusions and
meteorological phenomena in the atmosphere, observing satellites,
balloons, aircraft, aurora, .... managed to take several photos
in which the monitored objects, however, are usually shown only
vaguely , blurred, indistinct. A number of technically
high-quality photographs with well-visible details were also
published - but these were artificially created
photomontages ...
With objective sober thinking,
"aliens" are probably the last thing
that could stand behind a UFO ..! ..
Skeptical Thinking :
The
Uniqueness of Life? - a series of very unlikely coincidences !
The considerations outlined above about the possibilities of a
significant occurrence of life in space are based on our
knowledge (and still quite incomplete!) Of
a single variant of
development - "our" life here on Earth (briefly discussed above in the passage " How
did life originate? " -
" Abiogesis - evolution ") . In addition to universal physical and chemical laws, a
large number of random events and interplay of
highly unlikely circumstances applied. At the beginning of the
passage " Where and how can life arise?
"We have expressed the idea
that our solar system and planet Earth are not unique in terms of
space, there may be many similar systems and planets, so life
could have evolved in many places in space. Yes, there are
certainly more suitable planets in the" zone of life ".
(However, it is not easy to discover them.)
However , the solar system is characterized
by a relatively regular arrangement of planets with long-term
stable almost circular orbits, which is a specific
feature , because in general the protoplanetary disk
around the emerging star can usually develop into a very chaotic
system pathways and thus unstable conditions on the planets.
found several exoplanets
" similar to Earthi "in the sense that
they are terrestrial planets the size of Earth, orbiting in the habitable
zone . But if we compare the situation in our solar
system, these properties also have Venus and Mars, on which there
is no life (omitting here the hypotheses
about the possibility The Earth differs
from these planets by several " lucky " circumstances.It
has a large metal core which, when rotated, creates a relatively
strong magnetic field , protecting the planet's surface
from cosmic radiation.A relatively thin moving crust of the Earth
with tectonic activity in many places the interface of the plates
continuously brings mineral nutrients for organisms to the
surface (and into the seas) .
These properties are
probably largely related to the catastrophic process of formation
of the Moon in the early history of the Earth, in which after the
collision of a young Earth with the planet Theia (almost the size of Mars) , both
bodies melted, metallic material fell into the Earth's core and
much of the rock mineral The material was ejected and formed into
the moon. The Earth itself then had a thinner rocky crust and a
massive rotating metal core generating a magnetic field.
This coincidence makes the Earth a very unique
planet , which could very rarely form
in other planetary systems ..! ..
Other questions bring the peculiarities of
the process of the very origin and evolution of life. From
paleontological findings, it is estimated that life on Earth
began to emerge surprisingly early, just 1 billion years after
the Earth was formed (after the formation
and stabilization of the Earth-Moon system) .
However, for another 2 billion years it persisted only at the microbial
(prokaryotic) level. And basically it could have remained so permanently
, these microbial cells were a very successful species and are
still the most abundant ... Only 1.5 billion years ago,
prokaryotic cells of archaea and bacteria fused, endosymbiosis
- eukaryotic cells evolved . Bacteria became the
inhabitants of new cells, they developed into mitochondria,
which performed a specialized function of obtaining chemical
energy. It happened undoubtedly a rare coincidence
, since it occurred after 2 billion years of evolution, during
which innumerable prokaryote cells devour each other ... During
about one billion years of eukaryotic cells organized themselves
into multicellular organisms still
undifferentiated. Only about 550 million years ago, the diversity
of life began to emerge relatively quickly (the so-called " Cambrian evolutionary
explosion ") .
Thus, evolutionary progress from primitive
to advanced species has not been easy at all. A very non-trivial
question is the mechanism by which abstract thinking
has evolved from a life controlled by biochemical processes and
simple reflexes and instincts.and the "consciousness"
that created a species capable of evolving complex technologies,
recognizing nature and the universe, searching for its own origin
..? ..
This skeptical view would mean that in Drake's
equation above to estimate the possible occurrence of
extraterrestrial civilizations in our galaxy, the coefficients f l , f j and f c may have
had significantly lower values than is commonly
reported. Thus, life as such may still exist elsewhere in our
galaxy, but the probability of an advanced technological
civilization would probably be very small...
We would probably be alone in space..!..
We could expect a
real (non-zero) probability of the existence of life elsewhere in
the universe, if life in other places in the space arises
on a completely different basis and by different processes
than it was here on Earth. Then it might not always be just
unlikely coincidences, and the evolution of life could go in a
more straightforward way. This would significantly increase
the probability of the origin of life and its development into
higher forms. But it would be a completely different life
forms, entirely different from our familiar earthly...
We
are cosmic beings !
Man and other living beings can be described with a bit of
exaggeration as " cosmic beings " -
built of the same cornerstones (quarks and electrons -> atoms
and molecules) as all other bodies and objects in the universe.
All of our biogenic elements (except hydrogen, which has a primordial origin) were created more than 7 billion years ago in a giant
star of the previous generation, of which a neutron star or black
hole remains today. Our Sun, planets, including the Earth, and we
are created from the "ashes" of this ancient star that
exploded like a supernova (see " Cosmic Alchemy - We
are the descendants of the stars!"") and left behind a gas-dust nebula, enriched with
heavier elements, which it" boiled "thermonuclearly
inside. The earth" lends "us the building material of
our organisms, and we return them to the Earth. We are"
children "of stars and our bodies. They're made of
stardust. And it's not just one star, many stars have
exploded and ejected atoms have mixed in. Not only the atoms in
our left and right hands, but also many neighboring
atoms inside the same cell, probably come from other stars. ...
we are
driven by " cosmic
energy": thermonuclear reactions inside the Sun
release the resting energy of protons as binding energy in a
field of strong interactions. The sun's radiant light energy is
converted by green plants on Earth into molecules of organic
matter used by animals and humans. The universe brings our
organisms to life.
We
are the stewards of our planet Earth
We humans should be not parasites, but " stewards
" and good stewards of that little bluish
dot in space - planet Earth. We are able, to a certain extent, to
break free from the blind forces of nature and use these forces
in a targeted manner for the benefit of the protection
and better organization of nature. At present, it is mainly the
knowledge and protection of what living and inanimate nature has
created here on Earth. In the distant future, but we will
hopefully creators of new natural qualities ... outlined
above considerations suggest that we may be the only
intelligent species in the entire Milky Way ..? .. And
likewise also the immense diversity of species
of life is possibleunique ... That is why it is
important to protect and preserve this unique
world which is our home, as well as the home of a huge
number of other amazing creatures on Earth ..! .. - for our and
their descendants.
Artificial
intelligence and transhumanism - the lawful outcome of biological
evolution ?
Our biological body is a very imperfect,
inefficient and vulnerable "box" of our mental life and
intelligence. And it is also a major obstacle to
its improvement and spread outside the Earth, into space. As
mentioned above, radical changes in our environment, to whose
"greenhouse" conditions we are desperately fixated,
would mean the end of the intelligent creature homo sapiens
and the irreversible loss of all the knowledge it has achieved.
However, there are certain ways to overcome this
fundamental obstacle to further development in the more distant
future .
Note:In this
context, it is perhaps good to note that the fool's often
ridiculed slogan "We order wind, rain
" is probably the most modest act that future generations
will have to carry out in the interest of sustainable development
...
Technical progress that began in the
late 18th century. and now has an accelerating tendency,
gradually overcoming our physical limitations due to the
possibilities of our body. Powerful machines replace and amplify
our physical work, means of transport (cars, planes, trains)
replace our feet, means of communication transmit our weak voice
and sight "from a distance", complex devices help us to
see even where we would never be with our biological eye. they
did not look - into the microworld and the megasworld. Computer
electronics process a huge amount of information for us,
completely unmanageable for humans. Scientific and technological
methods help maintain health, save and prolong life. If the
accelerating pace of technological progress continues
uninterrupted, it is likely that there will be an interconnection
at the end of the 21st century. electronics with our bodies.
Three successive stages can be expected:
1. The first stage will be cyborgization
(the word " cyborg
", English cyborg , means the connection of cyber
technology and a living organism) . We will
transform into so-called cyborgs, ie cybernetic
organisms representing the synthesis of organic (biological) and
electronic (or electromechanical) parts. In a way, this stage has
already begun - the application of pacemakers, endoprostheses,
hearing aids, eye lenses. Improving people with ingenious
techniques may prove to be a better method than genetic
manipulation; or both methods will complement each other. This
will make it possible to increase or expand one's existing
abilities, significantly prolonging life. A brain-computer
"interface" will be constructed. Cyborgization is
likely to become part of future human evolution
.
2. Furthermore, the stage of
elaboration of the methodology of decoding the structure of information
in the neural network could followthe brain, including
human consciousness and the mind, and its transfer to electronic
memory in a completely artificial body. This would create a
humanoid robot with an artificial human brain. This mind and
intelligence would become completely independent of any physical
body. The individual physical death of man would
be overcome ...
3. The last stage would consist in
the complete omission of the individual body
(even artificial) and the future "human" civilization
would become a distributed electronic information network
(perhaps based on nanoparticles) , which would help remote signals controlled all
technological "peripherals" on Earth and in outer
space. Complex rocket journeys into space would become
unnecessary, replaced by teleportation
information.
The biological form and random
natural evolution thus represent perhaps only a temporary
period of development of an advanced intelligent
civilization, which will be replaced by postbiological
transformation and targeted technical evolution
. It is possible that by this stage already reached some alien
civilization ..? ..
This is the end unsuppressed concept
called. Transhumanism , which represents the
boldest ideals and goals of enlightened humanity, but so far only
hypothetical level. Perfect material and energy efficiency in the
use of natural resources would enable sustainable
development, without reckless plundering of nature. It
would also allow for the non-aggressive expansion of our future
civilization into space and the survival of even the greatest
catastrophes (see " Astrophysics and cosmology: - human hopelessness? ").
There are, of course, many debatable
questions (including ethical *) - such as what would be the case
with human freedom?) And conflicting views. We are so closely
bound to our bodies that it is so far inconceivable to
give up bodily pleasures and ideas . But perhaps all
these (bio) chemical signals can be transformed to a virtual
level ..? .. *) Quite real danger
is the possibility of misuse
certain wealthy groups and individuals who could
"afford it", unlike most other people. If the technical
means of improving people became a market item, it could lead to
a further significant increase in inequality
between people. And perhaps with very negative ethical
implications - given the well-known experience that the vast
majority of rich and influential people have a deficit of moral
qualities ("behind every great private property is hidden
crime", "the path to success, status and power leads
through corpses" ...). In this situation, transhumanism
would be a very dangerous and reprehensible
concept! Physical improvement of the body and brain performance
should only begin to be introduced when we improve
morally .
However, it can be assumed (or hoped) that at a
time when it will be technically possible to implement the
concept of transhumanism, the current soulless capitalism will no
longer be ruled, but will be replaced by democratic and
enlightened socialism , or even better by its future
improved version. Then perhaps the thesis will apply that
increased intelligence will not be misused for the selfish
interests of individuals or groups, but will serve the benefit
of all , all of humanity .... Then perhaps increasing
brain performance and intelligence will automatically lead to
improved ethics and future enlightened and progressive social
climate abuse does not even occur to anyone ..? ..
Variants
of the anthropic principle
During many discussions about the relationship between the
universe, life and human consciousness, several conceptions of
the anthropic principle crystallized, which can be divided
roughly into 3 groups (+ the other two
listed below) :
1. Weak anthropic principle
The physical properties of the universe are such that it
is compatible with the origin of life. This is a sober
physical approach - the anthropic principle is conceived as a selection
rule choosing from all possible cosmological models
those that correspond to the real state of our universe, ie
especially to the universe in which life could have originated.
The laws of physics are as they are, because otherwise we simply
would not be here and could not observe and investigate them. The
existence of life (and specifically of intelligent life - man,
observer) is conceived here as a limiting precondition for the
selection of all physically possible states of the universe in
its past.
2. A strong anthropogenic principle
At its inception, the universe must have "known" that
life (and humans) were to emerge in the future. Resp .: Our
universe is the best of all possible universes in the sense that
life must necessarily arise in it, while in no other would it
arise. The strong anthropic principle is actually the
philosophical antithesis of the Copernican principle. It is in
accordance with the theological concept: The universe was created
by God so that it would be maximally purposeful and that the
ultimate goal would be the origin and development of man.
3. The concept of
multiple universes
There are many different universes, and life arises where the
conditions are right. If we accept the possibility of the
existence of more universes, this concept can most naturally
explain the apparent uniqueness and specificity of our universe.
As mentioned above, inflationary expansion of suitable vacuum
fluctuations can create an unlimited number of universes with
various properties of physical interactions, elementary
particles, structure and distribution of matter, expansion
dynamics, even with different numbers of spacetime dimensions.
Such parallel universes live "their own lives." Most of
them have properties that do not allow the emergence of
intelligent life - they are non-anthropic.
However, some of them may be 4-dimensional, they will have
similar properties of interactions between elementary particles
as in our universe, they will be sufficiently homogeneous and
isotropic, they will expand at almost a critical rate. One of
them is our Universe, which we know to be anthropic
; we simply live on an "island that has a suitable
climate" ... The key to the mystery of the uniqueness of our
anthropic universe could be statistical laws in
the multiverse. Whether there are other universes in which
intelligent life has evolved (or another form of intelligent
information processing) can only be speculated ..? ..
Quantum theory of many worlds may be
related to " alternative histories " taking
place beyond the horizon of our universe, in other universes ...
![]() |
Allegorical
representation of the concept of many universes: God "blows" many
different universes (similar to soap bubbles), some of
which are anthropic. |
Note that the anthropic principle in co-production with quantum cosmology and the idea of ??many universes makes it possible to explain the problem of the dimension of space-time , ie to answer the question why space-time is just 4-dimensional (or 3 + 1-dimensional)? In spacetime with a dimension smaller than 4, there is no gravitational attraction between bodies, so there are no gravitationally bound systems such as galaxies, stars, planets. In spacetime with more than 4 dimensions, gravity exists, but as Ehrenfest has shown, the law of field intensity versus distance is sharper than the well-known law of inverted squares, which does not allow stable bound systems such as atoms or planetary systems. So we live in one of those (many) universes in which the 4-dimensionality of space-time allowed the emergence of more complex structures and eventually life.
The idea is that, in addition to "branching" and diversifying universes, there could also be "merging" of universes; so far it's just a hypothetical reasoning, the nature of which we have no idea - rather it probably doesn't happen! As for "our" universe, according to the anthropic principle , it is necessary to reflect, what made it possible that a very small part could have formed in it , which makes it possible to understand it ? It is also related to the complexity of the universe . If the universe were too complex , it is unlikely that anything would arise in it that would be able to understand this complexity. And if the universe was too simple, nothing complex enough to be able to understand even this simple structure of the universe could probably have arisen in it. So - a kind of " middle way " ..? .. It's just a philosophical reasoning ...
There are two other speculative variants of the (strong) anthropic principle :
4. The participatory anthropic principle
Intelligent life (observer) must arise in order to give the
universe real meaning and real existence by observing (measuring)
it and thus participating in its evolution. From a
philosophical point of view, the participatory anthropic
principle is justified by the theory of knowledge - gnoseology,
noetics. From the physical point of view, it is supported by the
so-called Copenhagen interpretation of quantum
mechanics, according to which a certain state of the physical
system arises only by measuring it. General: No phenomenon is a
phenomenon until it is observed. And so is the universe.
Therefore, if the universe is to be real, its properties must
allow the existence of an observer. Physically and
philosophically, however, it is debatable ..! ..
5. The final anthropic principle
Intelligent life in the universe not
only must necessarily arise, but once it arises, it will never
disappear. The intelligent observer is a goal that makes
sense of the existence of the universe. Any scientific
justification for the final anthropic principle is currently
lacking; it even contradicts current
cosmological concepts (according to which no structures in the
universe can be eternal - they end in either the collapse of a
closed universe or the infinite dilution and disintegration of
structures in the open universe *). The final anthropic principle
is only a product of our faith , resp. pious
wishes .....
*) Astrophysics and cosmology: human
hopelessness?
If we reflect from our human
point of view the knowledge of contemporary astrophysics
and cosmology about the evolution of the universe, it will
inevitably evoke in us a feeling
of hopelessness in the final
perspective and the meaning of our existence! Even if we can
avert the catastrophe of the Earth's collision with an asteroid,
devastating wars and various ecological catastrophes, protect the
Earth from a massive flash of cosmic radiation from a nearby
supernova explosion or neutron star fusion, in about 5 billion
years the Sun will reach the final stages of its evolution. As a
red giant, it first absorbs and evaporates all the inner planets,
including the Earth, creating a "planetary" nebula and
becoming a white dwarf itself. Until
then, humans may (?) Manage to escape from the
Earth and the solar system and populate other suitable objects in
space. But what's next? If the universe were
closed and collapsed into the "furnace of fire" of the
great ruin, we would probably have no hope. If the universe were
open, then a fatal end would not threaten us in principle.
However, in an expanding and constantly cooling universe, it
would be increasingly difficult to find districts of local
entropy fluctuations where there would still be available energy
sources for the development and maintenance of
civilization.
In any case, we can state that the findings and theories of
contemporary astrophysics and cosmology unfortunately do
not show us any real perspective of the
eternal existence and development of human civilization.!
However, we can be comforted by the fact that our current
knowledge is certainly not absolute and definitive. There are
many things we do not yet know
and perhaps have no idea ... And perhaps we can draw some
hope from this ignorance of ours ..!? ..
(It is
discussed in more detail in the passage " Astrophysics and Cosmology: - Human
Hopelessness? " §5.6
monograph " Gravity, black holes and space-time physics
")
Critical Note: The Anthropic Principle - Maybe Just
Fiction?
Just as every image bears traces of the characteristics of its
creator, so our image of the Universe is to some extent anthropocentric,
and we humans are probably not even able to create another image.
Although science is convinced of the objective existence of
natural processes and the universe, our limited knowledge is not
able to capture this in full complexity. Therefore, it cannot be
ruled out that the anthropic principle is a product of our human subjectivity
..? ..
5. Cosmic God
The idea that all
natural events and human life are controlled by something
higher that transcends nature and us is probably as old as
human civilization itself (some reflections
on the causes of religious ideas are in the essay " Science
and Religion ") . From the historical development of religious ideas
from animism and demonism , through polytheism
to monotheism , the effort of human thought for unity
is evident . So if we limit ourselves to monotheistic concepts,
we can divide the concept of God into three groups :
1. God - a being biased and
intervening
Theism : God is
a being different from the world, he is the creator of the world
and he constantly takes care of the world . "Without God's
will, no one's hair will fall out!" This
conception of God leads to an active religion - to a personal
relationship with God, whose favor can be begged through prayer,
faith and doing good. Christianity adds another important
aspect to this concept: God is loving (for
Christianity, see also: " The
Spiritual Music of the Christians of Western Europe ", " The Orthodox Music of the
Eastern Christians ") .
The decisive question for this concept No. 1 is: "Is our world (universe) open to outside interventions -" from above ", which cannot be expected in advance (or calculated in principle) and which cannot be controlled?" Most religions assume this, the natural sciences reject it ...
2. God - the first mover - determining the initial
conditions
Deism : God is
the original cause (creator) of the world, but he is not a force
that maintains and controls the world. The world is then
controlled only by natural laws.
3. God -
the maker of the laws of behavior of matter
God is a " designer " and the creator
of natural laws - they then "work for him", he
does not have to do everything constantly "with his
hands". This conception of God is fully compatible
with scientific knowledge.
Pantheism : God
is intrinsically contained in all things. God and the world are
the same - there is only one universal God
who is present everywhere ( -->compatible with atheism ).
Taoism : The
foundation of the world, the root cause and goal of all being, is
" Tao " - a kind of worldly mind that acts
everywhere and pervades everything (see the
"Taoism" passage below) . Today we would say - cosmic intelligence .
Evolution
- the tool of creation
In the light of contemporary science, it is possible in a way to
"reconcile" two opposing conceptions of the origin of
the world and life - creation (by God) and evolution . God could proceed in this way :
1. In the beginning he established
several universally valid laws of
nature ;
2. The original non-structured "prime matter" put some initial conditions (shows, however, that these initial
conditions may not be necessary - see below passage " Synergetics + quantum cosmology --> denial of God? ") ;
3. Then the
world is influenced he could already begin to develop his own dynamics governed by the laws of nature into what they are today,
without the need for further divine intervention.
Evolution
would thus be a universal tool for
generating new phenomena and structures under the influence of the
dynamics of systems themselves - believers could understand it as
"the method of God's creation
of the world and life ".
Soul
and Matter
Philosophy often discusses the question of whether there are any
hidden connections between the fundamental laws of nature
(electrodynamics, elementary particles, quantum physics, or
gravity) and human consciousness . When
considering the relationship between the terms " soul
" and " matter ", there are three views:
It is difficult to say whether "matter is made of soul" or "soul is made of matter". With proper foresight and non-dogmatic reflection, for example in pantheism , both of these approaches can be combined ..? ..
Man - soul and body
Is man just an amazingly complex and subtly programmed
"machine" that acts on the basis of chemical reactions
taking place in brain cells and their intricate connections? Or
do we have something more than the body - a " soul
", free and independent of the physical body, a soul that
exists even after death and the demise of the body? There are a
large number of opinions on the conception of the soul and its
relationship with the body, often contradictory; at different
times, this or that aspect of human existence was preferred.
Although "the soul" is one
of the central concepts in human thought, its meaning is rather
vague and ambiguous. The original meaning is the breath - the breath
of life. It now includes a number of human qualities -
psyche (perception and feeling), spirit (spiritus - will,
thinking, consciousness, self-reflection, wisdom), what one feels
and experiences internally, sees in the context of one's personal
experience, what comes to mind and what one imagines. . All these
aspects of the mental state are sometimes
referred to in philosophy as the collective Latin name qualia
. From our point of view, we can divide the great diversity of
the concept of the soul into two groups:
The questions of the relationship between thought and
mind, "mental" and "spiritual," which have
been shrouded in mystery and mysticism in the past, are also
complex. Research into brain activity using
devices (such as functional brain imaging methods - PET positron emission tomography and NMRI nuclear magnetic resonance ) in recent decades is
beginning to shed new light on this area. The earlier notion
(already expressed by Descartes) of the soul and the body as two
different substances , which cooperate with each other
in a complex and mysterious way, is already abandoned
in science . It is becoming increasingly clear that mental
activity probably arises as a combinatorial outcome
biochemical reactions and electrical stimuli between billions of
brain and nerve cells. Simply put: consciousness
"emerges" from physical and chemical phenomena. And in
humans it arose as a result of biological evolution
.
As for the "mental"
spiritual and mystical feelings and experiences, certain
indications of their origin were brought about by experiments
with psychotropic hallucinogenic substances (such
as LSD).as well as monitoring people who
experienced clinical death but returned to life. After the
application of psychotropic substances, psychedelic experiences,
hallucinations, including "religious ecstasy" appeared
in an increased number of people. In people after clinical death,
the characteristic experiences from the "grave" (light
tunnel, feeling of leaving the body and hovering) are explained
by the changed activity of the brain due to the interruption of
blood flow - transient aperfusion of the brain*).
Research using EEG signal analysis has shown that a lack of
oxygen (hypoxia) and glucose in brain cells, along with increased
levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, stimulates the cells to be
more active in the short term; this is likely to cause said
hallucinations. Neurologists study which part of the brain (or
what signaling pathways) triggers and mediates
"transcendental" experiences - where is our " detector
of God "?
*) If this state of aperfusion of the brain
lasted for a long time (longer than about 5 minutes at normal
temperature), there would be irreversible damage to the brain and
later to brain death. However, with short-term aperfusion, brain
activity also resumes when blood supply is restored, but the
results of altered brain activity during hypoxia may be recorded
in the neural network.2 . This information can then be recalled and interpreted
in various ways, including the mystical ... Experiences of this
kind are sometimes (unjustifiably) related to the hypothesis of a
kind of "quantum consciousness" - it is briefly
discussed in the passage "Quantum
Consciousness" §1.1 of
the book "Gravity, Black Holes and the Physics of
Spacetime".
There are still many vague but basic
outlines of the true origin of the " soul
" and "mental" (leaning towards the above last
point in the relationship between body and soul ) are already
beginning to take shape. It turns out that the " divine
origin of the soul " must be sought some
"deeper" deeper than previously thought - God as the
creator of the laws of behavior of matter (see
the passage " Genius God " below) , from whose complex
combinations also springs mental activity in our brain.
Did God create the universe? - view of
science
The laws of nature, controlling matter and energy, triggered the
processes that caused the origin and evolution of the universe
and eventually created us. There was no time before the Big Bang,
so there was no time for God to create the universe. God
understood in this way does not exist, no one has created the
universe, no one controls our destiny. There is neither
"heaven" nor afterlife. We have one life, during which
we appreciate such a beautifully created universe. Sensory
perceptions, memories, associations - this is the building
material of the brain to build an image of reality, what we
experience, what we have experienced. And by synthesizing this
information, we realize what is happening in space and time ...
This is how contemporary fundamental
physics and astrophysics, the leading representative of which is
a heroic personality, look at the universe.S.Hawking
. This person with a severe disability should have every right to
use " religious opium " and rave about God and
the supernatural. Instead, however, he chose a psychologically
courageous and intellectually honest approach to the negation of
these ideas, in favor of objective scientific knowledge.
However, this objective and sober view of
science does not mean an absolute negation of the abstract God.
Below in the passage " Genius
God " it will be shown that
God can be understood on a deeper level - as the
"creator" of the laws of nature, or even identified
with these natural laws.
In connection with the above concepts of God, another fundamental question immediately arises :
Where
and how to seek God?
If God is a being different from the
world, then he is outside the world - he is a transcendent
being outside our usual space and time. Some philosophers and
theologians, inspired by the geometrical-topological methods of
relativistic cosmology, place God in the higher dimensions of
space-time or in areas formed by the complex topology of
our space-time. The possible influence of natural processes by
these (inaccessible) structures cannot be explained by natural
laws - it has the character of a miracle . The ways of seeking God can be
roughly divided into three levels :
b)
The unifying essence - God as a designer and creator
God can be known by the analysis of created things. Thus,
scientific knowledge of nature is actually a religious act.
This is how some philosophically based scientists understand
God - such as Einstein or Hawking.
c)
Psychological level
Human culture, thinking, feelings, faith, experience,
shape the worldview of each person - a personal God
can be a part of it . Spirituality is a kind of
personal conversation with gods or God, it has the character of
subjective individual experiences that cannot be directly
communicated, cannot be objectified or "measured" (the origin of these mental processes has been discussed
above) .
By systematically developing ideas about supernatural phenomena
and beings, religions are created with their cults,
written texts and dogmas. The organizational structures are then churches
, or. sects. An important positive contribution of a
religion understood in this way is its moral message -
composure, hope, love, humility, doing good. The hopes of overcoming
death in salvation or reincarnation can also have a
psychological benefit. Unfortunately, the negative effects of
intolerance and bigotry in religion are also well known ; it was
often an abuse of the religious sentiment of primitive people for
the greedy and selfish goals of individuals or groups.
Critical note: Can God be found at
all?
Some philosophers are skeptical about the very search for God . E.g.
Krishnamurti claims that God cannot
be found ,
there is no way to Him. If we seek God, we will find only our own
image. We will not find the truth, but only the result of our
wish. According to these analyzes, therefore, the whole religion
would be only a way of expressing about some common features of the human mind , a psychic matter, not having a
direct origin in the outside world. God or
gods exist only in our heads and probably
nowhere else.
In this context, we
can mention one of Murphy's aphorisms: " To believe
is to be convinced of something that is not true. ".
Many events that authoritatively describe religious texts (and
which many people believe) did not happen or
took place differently ...
6. Physics
and God
The task of physics is to objectively examine the fundamental laws of
nature, regardless of whether a particular physicist is a
believer or an atheist. Nevertheless, the results of physical
research have a significant impact on the worldview and understanding of God. Very
simply, we can divide this influence into three stages:
Stage 1: Materialism - Denial of God
Mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics and other
branches of classical physics celebrated such significant successes in
explaining the natural events and the structure of the universe
that there was almost no place left for God.
Origin
of spacetime, vacuum, laws of physics ???
Even if we succeed in
creating the desired " complete cosmological theory
" (however so far it is only at the level of hypotheses), we
would still be left open to the two most difficult and
fundamental issues of cosmology and perhaps the whole of physics
and science:
1. What is the origin of spacetime
and " vacuum " , the
fluctuations of which subsequently led to the creation of the
universe?
2. What is the origin of the basic
laws of physics according to which our universe was created and
evolved?
The basic method of
physics and science is reductionism - try to
translate and explain complex phenomena using simpler and more
fundamental phenomena. A typical example is the reductionist
scheme of biology Ü chemistry
Ü physics : complex biological processes
are explained by chemical reactions between organic molecules,
chemical reactions are physically explained by electromagnetic
interactions between the electron shells of atoms. The ultimate
goal of unitary field theory is to explain all 4 interactions
using a single unitary field, the manifestation of which would
then be all elementary particles and the interactions between
them.
The simplest "field" is a vacuum-
generally curved spacetime, geometrically characterized by a
general theory of relativity which is also the physics of
gravity, in which, moreover, the laws of quantum field theory
apply. Possibly. some more general variety with
more dimensions, within which multidimensional unitary field
theories work. Here, quantum fluctuations of metrics or other
geometric structures can lead to the formation of a
"district", which, according to the laws of field
theory, including gravity, can initially expand exponentially
(inflation) and then Fridman - a new universe is born
. The existence of this initial (or permanent and pervasive)
variety must be postulated, as well as the
validity of the basic physical quantum-gravitational laws that
"trigger" and control it all. The origin of these two primary
postulated starting points , and thus the origin
of the universe in terms of its existence
( why did "something" and not "nothing"
arise? ), We must probably leave in the transcendent plane
(on God ..?.) - will be (perhaps forever ?) shrouded in mystery
....
Genius
God
The divine personification of natural forces and
laws was quite common in ancient times, when people did not know
the nature and mechanism of most natural phenomena. The theistic
notion of Almighty God, who " does his hands
" everywhere and constantly , has been at the heart of most
religions in Euro-American territory for centuries. Even now, we
are far from knowing everything. However, we know enough to make
it clear that advances in science are increasingly
"displacing" fantastic and supernatural explanations of
phenomena and replacing them with real, proven knowledge
and natural explanations that also reveal the
interrelationships between phenomena . It shows
that the world is basically recognizable (with certain limitations given by quantum uncertainty
relations and primary postulated starting points) and explainable by human reason. The theistic idea is
now completely useless, unbelievable and even absurd. Religious
"knowledge" of this kind is only apparent, empty, and
often false; in fact, it does not explain anything
, it only "patches" our ignorance.
If the above-mentioned bold
conceptions of synergetics and cosmology proved to be correct,
they would again leave God with only a very reduced role
: God would be "only" a designer and lawmaker of
matter (these laws also determine the origin of matter in our
known forms and its organization into more complex structures).
For believers, be satisfied that magnificence
God thus conceived is not reduced in any way. On the contrary :
Note 1: The mathematical side cannot
be presented in the semi-popular lecture "Anthropic
Principle or Cosmic God". More detailed information on physical and mathematical aspects of the theory of gravity,
astrophysics and cosmology can be obtained (except for works in
foreign professional journals), eg in the book " Gravity, black holes and space-time physics ", Čs.astronom.spol.
ČSAV, Ostrava 1986 (reprint 1990). Some questions of the
relationship between science
and faith are discussed in the essay " Science
and Religion ".
Note 2 - new findings:
Many years have passed since the beginning of this work, so the
basic text does not contain some new findings and hypotheses that
have emerged since then.
A. These are primarily some new concepts in
unitary field theories, especially superstring theories
, describing particles as vibrations of elementary one-dimensional
objects called strings . A new version of
superstring theory, the so-called M-theory ,
considers our spacetime to be a 4-dimensional membrane
that moves in the fifth dimension; other dimensions, used in the
11-dimensional variety of the geometric formulation of
supergravity, are compacted: they are enclosed in each other -
rolled into micro-dimensions of Planck's length» 10 -33
cm, in which nothing can move and their manifestations can
therefore not be observed. This unitary theory also includes
gravity (§ B.6 " Unification of
fundamental interactions. Supergravity. Superstrings. " Of the book "Gravity, Black Holes and the
Physics of Spacetime").
In these approaches, we imagine the universe as a
"network" or "mesh" of vibrating
strings that have certain characteristics (voltage,
vibration energy, direction). The whole space or cosmos here is
composed of one "material", differing only in the
nature of the vibration and thus in the energy and mass of the
particles, described as hidden strings.- the description of the
cosmos as a unified system , which manifests
itself only in the dual world by means of various properties.
Superstring theory has some interesting astrophysical
and cosmological implications , but at a
hypothetical level so far. In the field of black hole physics,
some new perspectives on quantum-gravitational effects and
thermodynamic connections have emerged. In the field of cosmology
of the earliest universe, the hypotheses of the pre-big
bang phase of the universe and the model of the
so-called ecpyrotic origin of the universe are discussed
(see the passage " Astrophysical and cosmological consequences of
superstring theory " § B.6.books "Gravity, Black
Holes and the Physics of Spacetime"), which go beyond the
magical frontier of the Big Bang.
B. According to recent astronomical observations of distant supernovae, there have been some indications that the expansion of the universe is currently accelerating , that in addition to dark (non-radiant) matter, there is also so-called dark energy in space , which shows "antigravity". Thus, the evolution of the universe seems to take place under the influence of the cosmological constant L > 0 (see §5.6 "The Future of the Universe. The Arrow of Time.", The passage " Dark Energy and the Accented Expansion of the Universe " in the book "Gravity, Black Holes ..."). This is contrary to previous notions that the universe expanded (exponentially) with increasing speed only during a brief moment of inflationary expansion.just after the "big bang", while the subsequent Fridman expansion of the universe slows down steadily .
All these and other concepts are still somewhat speculative in the nature of hypotheses and are not sufficiently verified. Interestingly, although the work "The Anthropic Principle or the Cosmic God" originated so many years ago, we find almost nothing here that would now need to be fundamentally changed.
As new credible findings emerge, we will gradually analyze their physical and philosophical significance for understanding the structure and functioning of our world - the universe.
In the following appendices, some related topics are outlined and discussed in the lecture "The Anthropic Principle or the Cosmic God" . These topics are presented on slides during the lecture.
Appendix 1: Unitary field theory
The idea of ??unitary field theory is extremely deep and beautiful!
Concept of unitary field theory :
There is a single , completely basic
and all-encompassing physical field, the
manifestation of which are all fields observed in nature -
gravitational, electromagnetic, fields of strong and weak nuclear
interactions. In the world, there is actually nothing but this
field, which is the bearer of all natural phenomena and from
which everything is composed - material formations (particles)
are a kind of local "condensation" of this unitary
field.
Scheme of individual stages
and procedures of unification of 4 basic interactions in nature.
Classical approach :
material particles - basic entities;
space - "stage or" Arena "in
which the particles move.
field - particles around themselves fields that
spread area and mediates the interaction between particles.
General theory of relativity
(GTR) :
Material particles determine the structure of space, particles
cannot be separated from the surrounding space.
The dialectic of GTR :
Matter dictates spacetime as it should curve, spacetime dictates
matter as it moves.
Particles in unitary field theory
:
There is no opposite (difference) between material particles and
the field. The unitary field is the basic entity - it is a
continuous "medium" spread everywhere in space.
Particles = local "condensation" of the field - energy
concentration.
Particle formation : A
densified field area is formed.
Particle motion : The area of ??a densified
field moves in space and time.
Particle extinction : The area of ??the
compressed field dissolves - the particle "dissolves"
into its own field.
All this takes place under the influence of the internal laws of evolution of the unitary field.
The unitary array exists always and everywhere , it can never be removed. He is the bearer of all natural phenomena. It is the "void" from which material particles condense. The origin, existence and extinction of particles are only forms of motion (evolution) of the field.
"We can look at matter
as being created by such areas of space in which the
field is extremely dense. In this new kind of physics,
there is no room for field or matter, because the only
reality is the field." (A.Einstein) |
Geometrodynamics :
The unitary field is the gravitational field, or the geometry of
(empty) free-time Ţ all matter is formed from emptiness .
Physical vacuum :
It is not a state of pure nothingness, but it contains the
potential of all forms of the particle world. The vacuum is a
"living void" pulsating in the endless rhythm of the
formation and extinction of structures, virtual and real
particles.
Philosophical conclusion : Since even "emptiness" is full of life Ţ there is nothing .
Quantum physics: Everything is dynamic Ţ things do
not exist, there are only processes.
Only our mind creates time slots in the stream of
evolution and calls them things .
Is the world subjective or objective?
Microworld - quantum physics - impossibility to separate
the observer from the observed phenomena Ţ ? Are the
structures and phenomena that we observe in nature only the
result of our measurement and thinking? Definitely
not - see below.
For more on the concepts of
unitary field theory, see Appendix B: "Unitary
Field Theory and Quantum Gravity "
in the book " Gravity, Black Holes, and the Physics
of Spacetime ."
Is the world subjective or objective?
There are two extreme views on the question of the basic
existence and nature of the world and its reflection by us
humans:
In favor of
view No. 1 , the only objective world *), not
only the results of scientific research speak convincingly, but
also the very possibility of mutual communication
between people, as well as the existence of literary and fine
art, communicating a common reflection of
objective reality. Looking No. 2 , this would not be possible, we just wouldn't understand
!
However, even subjective view No. 2 can have
its metaphorical significance in the field of art,
philosophy, psychology and spiritual directions.
*) The concept of many different universes, mentioned above in
the section "Anthropic Principle", is about something
else and has nothing to do with the philosophical question
discussed here.
From the reflection of the laws of quantum physics and their extrapolation from the microworld to the general level, a third view sometimes appears, combining to some extent both of the above views:
3. Do the subject and the
object intersect ?
From the point of view of quantum mechanics
, each system can behave according to a number of
possibilities, of which just one is realized due to
interactions with other systems. Even the act of
observation (measurement, cognition) is such an
interaction that - at least in the microworld - changes
its quantum state and thus reduces the possible states of
this system to one "real" observed state. In
the microworld, therefore, " things cannot
be observed without changing them " - the
act of measurement (measuring system,
"observer") is "drawn" into the
investigated phenomenon and thus "calculated"
into the measurement result.(Probably
not , the " observer " can also
be a measuring device, or a simple physical interaction,
without a subject ...) . Absolutism
of the circumstances and its extrapolation to the macro-
and megasvěta in science leads to local
antropickému principle mentioned above, in some
philosophical speculation, then a subjective -
idealistic is ... (author
personally does not share these views - see the section
" Mystical
quantum physics?
" And " Quantum recognizability " in §1.1 of the book " Nuclear
physics and physics of ionizing radiation
"). It is interesting to think
about these aspects of the behavior of complex systems
from the point of view of synergetics (it is discussed, for example, in the passage
" Determinism
- chance - chaos?
" §3.1 of the monograph " Gravity,
black holes and space-time physics ") .
Although physical props are used in this view No. 3 , from the point of view of physics and science
it is often only a misunderstanding and unsubstantiated
speculation ..! .. However, the same applies as in
the discussion above: view No. 3 may have its positive metaphorical meaning
in the field of art, philosophy, psychology and spiritual
directions ...
Appendix 2: Eastern Philosophy and Religion
In this appendix, we will make a
brief mention of some religious and philosophical trends
that are interesting to relate to the issues of the universe
, our human existence , ethics,
and our place and direction in the universe . We
focus here mainly on the eastern (or
"far-eastern") spiritual directions. To discuss the
issues of Christianity would be, given its spread in our
territory, "carrying wood into the forest." We will not
mention Judaism and Islam here either, because due to their
largely dogmatic nature, they do not bring any interesting or new
views on our relationship to the universe.
Note: Some aspects of Christianity
and Islamare mentioned in passages on sacred
music : " Catholic ", " Orthodox ", " Islamic ".
The basic dogma of Eastern philosophy:
We are not surrounded by objects that exist independently
"on their own" as we perceive them. All the things and
events that we perceive are creations of our mind
, arising from a certain state of consciousness and disappearing
again when that state is transcended. It is only an
illusion of man to ascribe a deeper meaning to these
structures and phenomena around us. The universe is not a world
of objects, but emanations of God's energy ..?
..
" All
the phenomena of this world are nothing but a deceptive
manifestation of the mind and have no fact in themselves
" (Ashvaghosha).
" All phenomena are meaningless
"; " Form is emptiness and emptiness
is form "
(Hridaja Sutra - Sutra of the Heart - On the emptiness of all
being).
Contradiction with
science ..?
This subjective-philosophical conception is certainly not
very plausible in the light of contemporary scientific
knowledge, which is based on the opposite platform of the objective
reality of natural phenomena. It is due to the pre-scientific
period of its creation. Nevertheless, even a naturalist can positively
reflect the views of Eastern philosophy (albeit
fundamentally incorrect ...) - at least in a symbolic
or metaphorical sense. It may also be interesting to think about
possible connections with the physical concept of unitary
field theory (see previous passages) ...
HINDUISM - the eternal order of the cycle in the pantheon of gods and their incarnations; cradle of eastern spirituality
Hinduism - a collective term for spiritual and religious traditions that have developed very diversely for many centuries on the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is not a single mythology, but a complex conglomeration of various myths and cults originated and evolving in the regions around the Ida and Ganges rivers and adjacent territories.
Basic Religious Writings of Hinduism
The Vedas ( science = knowing how to
properly worship the gods to hear supplications)
- the oldest Hindu writings, collections of hymns, prayers,
celebrations and invocations of various gods. The four basic
Vedas: Rgved (prayers and religious
reflections), Samaved (religious songs),
Yajurved (texts on victims), Atharvaved
(magical texts and formulas). The Vedas originated around the
13th century BC, initially spread by word of mouth among the
brahma?as, later they were written (according to tradition they
were written by the sage Vyasa ).
In addition to the basic 4 Vedas, four more so-called
upaveds ("additional Vedas")were later
created. The most important of these isAyurveda
summarizing ancient Indian medicine.
Brahmanas - explanatory texts for teaching the
Vedas in brahma?a families.
Upanishads ( upa = close, ni = down, sad = sit - that is,
the doctrine intended for those who "sit close to the
Master's feet")
- "secret teachings" and philosophical interpretations
to clarify the hidden meaning and meaning of the Vedic texts.
They deal with the questions of the origin of the world, the
unity of all being, the soul ( Atman ) and God, karma
and reincarnation. For the Upanishads, the collective name of the
Vedanta (= end of the Vedas)
is sometimes used because it is the culmination of the Vedic
teachings.
Puranas ( = ancient traditions) - "divinely
inspired" myths, legends and epics, describing the
miraculous and heroic deeds of gods or kings.
Ramayama is a heroic ballad about Prince Rama (who is Vishnu's
avatar) who, with the help of the devoted monkey king Hanuman,
fights for the liberation of his wife Sita, who was abducted by
the demon Ravan and
to the island of Lanka. Hanuman jumped the sea; the monkeys even
built a bridge between the Indian coast and Sri Lanka.
The Mahabharata is an extensive epic (numbering more than 100,000
couplets - probably the greatest epic in world literature) about
the Bharat dynasty, where a divine message is given in a section
called the Bhagavatgita (a song of nobility)
against the backdrop of a long struggle between the related
Pandus and Kurus ; here is the god Krishna,
performing in the symbolic role of a chariot driver, in a
dialogue with Arjuna (of the Pandus family) preaches selfless
deeds ( karma yoga ) and devotion to the divine
principle in unity by the Atman.
330 thousand gods Ţ polytheism?
No! There is one God. The various gods are only representatives
of the power and functions of one supreme God in the visible
world.
Pantheon
of Hunduistic gods :
Brahma - the supreme creator, the inner essence of all
things, the pantheistic principle, the absolute being, which
contains and conceives all that is - the embodiment of infinity;
Vishnu - the creator of the universe, the
maintainer of life; Shiva - the god of fertility
and death;
Sarasvati (wife of Brahma) - goddess of wisdom,
knowledge and art;
Sri - Lakshmi (wife of Vishna) - "lotus
goddess", goddess of fortune, wealth;
Padma - Ganga (goddess of the river Ganges,
Shiva's wife);
Parvati (1st wife of Shiva, mother of Ganesha); Kali
- Durga (2nd wife of Shiva) - bloodthirsty
goddess of destruction and death;
Krishna(incarnation of Vishna) - the graceful
god of love, music, dance, the herald of Bhagavatgita (chanting
of the noble) in the epic Mahabharata (against the background of
the struggle between the Pandus and the Kurus ,
Krishna proclaims important requirements of ethics and
spirituality).
In many of their sects, Hindus also worship a whole host of other
gods, such as Ganesha (god of success with an elephant's head),
Mitra (god of light), Manasa (goddess of snakes), Rama
(incarnation of Vishna) with his wife Sita (epic Ramayana
), Hanuman (monkey god), Soma (elixir of life), etc ...
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Dancing Shiva | Krishna | Sarasvati |
All things around us are various manifestations of a single and supreme reality called BRAHMA .
The concept of time:
Linear - life is a chronological series of
unique events in running time
Cyclic - life as an ever-recurring cycle. This
is how time and life are conceived in Hinduism.
Creation of the world :
God becomes the world and the world eventually becomes God again.
The world is the "stage" of this divine game.
Hinduism - the basis of Eastern spirituality
Enlightened followers of Hinduism around the 6th century BC tried
to rid the old religion of some prejudices and pagan practices.
Above all, they rejected the ritual sacrifice of animals, which
contradicted the then widespread concept of ahinsa - not
harming living beings, our neighbors. Some of them also rejected
the caste system. Thus, two other important religions developed
from the late Vedic tradition - Buddhism and
Jainism , which have survived to this day. And Buddhism,
enriched with elements of Taoism , gave rise to
other important philosophical and spiritual trends of the
Chinese in China and Zen.in Japan. All
these directions will be mentioned below in separate passages.
Hinduism can be described as the " cradle of Eastern
wisdom " in the sense in which we call Greek
antiquity the "cradle" of European philosophy
and civilization.
Eastern philosophical-religious concepts
We will briefly mention here several philosophical and
religious concepts originally originated in Hinduism and
derived from the Sanskrit andPállanguages(the
form in Sanskrit is usually given in parentheses). Most of these
terms are used in all Eastern religions and philosophical systems
that have Indian origins (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and in
part, late Taoism through the Buddhist direction of
Qian or Zen ).
A t m á n ( atman = breath, breathing ) :
The immortal human soul , the hidden inner
"I", the highest part of the divine spirit within us.
Immortality of the human soul Ţ Reincarnation
(Latin reincarnation, reincarnation ; in Buddhism also rebirth
) : Every personal soul ( Atman ) goes
through many rebirths into other lives ( samsara
) with reincarnation - whether human, animal or plant - decided
by karma . "Just as one gets rid of old worn
clothes and puts on new ones, just as a soul trapped in a body
gets rid of old bodies and enters new ones" (Bhagavatgita).
Samsara ( samsara = constant wandering - between
lives) :
The cycle of life, death and rebirth of each individual
("karmic circulation"). From the cycle of ever new and
new lives (often filled with misery) it is possible to escape
through knowledge, release of all bonds and desires - it is
possible to achieve a state of liberation
referred to in Hinduism as moksha , in Buddhism
nirvana .
Karma
( karma = action ) - the
law of causes and effects in the creation of destiny:
Every human action, in addition to its visible effect, also
evokes an invisible action that lasts even though the visible
effect has already disappeared. It is not limited to the present
life, but is transmitted to subsequent births - it decides both
on the form of rebirth and on all the circumstances of life in
future existence. Through each of their actions, beings gain
certain merit and guilt, whose
ratio attained during the life (or even past lives) determines
the nature and quality of the future existence of the being into
which the Atman has incarnated. There is sometimes talk of a
"karmic debt" which, if not repaid, always leads to
more and more reincarnations. Thus the reincarnation of the atman
on his pilgrimage to other forms of being ( samsara )
continues - until the final liberation ( moksha ) from
the cycle of lives in nirvana . The current situation is
therefore the result of behavior in previous lives - it is
therefore "deserved", whether good or bad ... The
evolution of the soul in human bodies can take place for many
incarnations, the right direction is intellectual improvement and
the adoption of moral principles.
Fatalism ..? ..
Whatever is to happen to a person (as a karmic consequence of the
law of cause and effect of deeds from his present or previous
life) at a certain time, will surely catch up with him that day.
According to some concepts, however, the fate of man in a given
earthly life is not predetermined with definitive validity. The
"innate destiny" of the karma of previous lives can be
significantly changed by choosing a life path .
Either for the good - self-improvement in love and wisdom, or for
the bad - selfishness and harm to other beings ...
Ahinsa ( = non-harm, non-violence )
Respect for all living
things , the basic moral-religious
principle of all Eastern spiritual directions - Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism (where it is most emphasized).
Dharma ( dharma = law, way ) :
The doctrine of the path to universal truth and
of a way of life in accordance with the divine law that leads to
enlightenment and liberation.
J
o g a ( yoga = connection
- connection with the absolute being, God, the true essence, our
soul - Atman)
File teachings on methods of control of bodily and mental
functions of man in order to achieve higher spiritual
states and liberation from the ego and dependence on material
existence. The ultimate goal is permanent identification with
absolute being and consciousness, attaining enlightenment and
liberation - moksha, nirvana . To achieve these goals,
yoga has developed several techniques:
Hatha yoga - yoga physical exercises,
including breathing exercises, which revitalize the body and help
mental concentration. This type of yoga is most widespread in
Euro-American territory, where the "practical" side of
physical training is emphasized.
Jnana yoga- yoga of wisdom, knowledge,
studies, meditation for self-knowledge and enlightenment.
Mantra Yoga - Concentration is achieved
by repeating mantras, the acoustic vibrations of which help calm
the mind.
Karma yoga - a good work and selfless
service to other beings purifies the consciousness and soul of
man.
Bhakti Yoga - Enlightenment can be
attained by devotion and love of Godhead in some of its forms
(Vishnu, Shiva) or avatar.
Guru Yoga - By worshiping an already
enlightened Master (guru), the disciple attains his own
enlightenment under his guidance.
Shakti yoga - work with human energies
(so-called shakti), chakras, paths through which
"energy" flows (science is skeptical about it ...) .
Raja yoga- the path of self-discipline,
firm will, austerities.
The various methods of yoga have much in common and complement
each other; yogis usually combine them.
Meditation (med. Meditatio = meditation ) :
Meditation involves various spiritual practices and ways of inner
contemplation and concentration in order to achieve an
altered state of consciousness and knowledge from a different
perspective. Meditation helps to induce:
¨ A
state where the mind is free of all unnecessary thoughts.
¨
Concentrating the mind on a specific object.
¨
Altered state of consciousness, psychic opening to spiritual and
religious ideas.
¨
Intuitive insight into the real essence or religious idea. The
rational mind is subdued and we perceive and know reality
directly (intuitively, extrasensory, transcendental),
without a "filter" of conceptual thinking. In the
calmed mind, the intuitive insight appears completely
spontaneously: it begins to reflect things as they are. The
pervasive inner wisdom of the mind knows things
on the basis of being in unity with them .
The word meditation is of Latin origin and is used
mainly by European and American authors writing on spiritual
issues. In the original eastern directions in this sense to use
the term Samadhi (concentration or
spiritual ecstasy), dhyana (resting
motionless with a single subject, absorption), bhavana
(Buddhist cultivation practice of mind), or vipassana
(meditation of "clear insight") - see below.
Samadhi ( samadhi = attachment, anchoring, immersion, concentration
of the mind on one object) - spiritual ecstasy,
ecstasy
In Hinduism, samadhi is the highest state of
mind, attainment of absolute reality, "superconscious
state", deepest spiritual immersion, union of the Atman with
the deity - Brahma. The state of samadhi is mostly a
temporary human experience; when the permanent state of
samadhi is attained, it is already the ultimate liberation -
moksha, nirvana . In Hindu mythology, Samadhi is
sometimes mentioned - the god of knowledge , the
protector of sages and scholars. See below for samadhi in
Buddhism.
Nirvana
( nirvana = extinguishing of fire
) :
The end of material life, liberation from the cycle of
reincarnations (samsara), rest in the state of eternal absolute
peace, bliss, enlightenment, extinction of passions and desires,
hatred, blindness, pain, suffering and fear. According to
Hinduism, an individual achieves this when he realizes that the
Atman - his inner "I" - is identical with the Brahman,
the absolute being - he realizes that he himself is a
"god."
The term nirvana predominates in
Buddhism; in Zen Buddhism, the Japanese word
satori is also used in a similar sense. The Hindu
religions often used the name moksha (
= termination- samsara, the cycle of life). The highest
degree of liberation in perfect love and wisdom is sometimes
referred to as mahanirvana .
Mantra ( mantra = liberation of the mind
) :
A short formula - "holy saying" - which has a special
divine and magical power and effectiveness for liberation and
enlightenment. In addition to the one-syllable mantra "
om ", multiword mantras are also used, such as
"om mani padme hum" (om, jewel in the lotus) ,
"hare Krishna, hare Rama, hare, hare ...",
"Sarasvati bhagavathi" (Sarasvati noble) ) , "Om
Sri Lakshmi Narayana" (Om Happy Lakshmi sleeping on the
waters) , "Om Namah Shivaya" ( Om , Glory to Shiva) ,
"Jaya Devi Mata Namaha" (Goddess Mother Be Greeted ) ,
....ajapa - unspoken).
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The most used mantra is the syllable " Om " ("aum", "hum"), which is considered a symbol of the Supreme Being ( Brahma ) and which, when utterly uttered or chanted by its acoustic resonance, helps to calm the mind and induce higher states of consciousness. |
Sútra ( sutra = thread, thread, rope ; also
instructive speech ) :
A collection of brief philosophical and religious instructive
statements. These brief, concentrated statements, often of the
nature of aphorisms, tend to be accompanied by more extensive
commentary and interpretation.
Guru ( guru = full, difficult - filled with
knowledge) :
Spiritual teacher and master on the path of enlightenment.
Instead of their original names, important gurus adopted
spiritual names derived from the names of Hindu gods or
their avatars. E.g. Ramakrishna , Brahmananda .
These names also include spiritual titles or attributes - such as
Swami (one who controls his mind), Sri (lord),
Mahatma (great spirit), Satya (true), Maharishi
(great sage).
The ashram ( = tent, dwelling - where the disciples live)
Under the guidance of the master - the guru - they study
and meditate here in order to attain true knowledge and
enlightenment.
Avatar ( avatar = one who descends -
descends from the spiritual to the material world) :
The divine master (more than the guru), the incarnation
of a certain god, most often Vishna ,
who descends to the world to bring higher knowledge to people,
corrected everything bad and arranged order and love. According
to Hindu teachings, in certain periods of history, God sends a
certain person to earth, incarnates in him, and he is then full
of goodness, love, and miraculous abilities.
E.g. Krishna was the eighth avatar of Vishna,
and his ninth avatar is sometimes considered to be the Buddha.
The 10th Vinu avatar Kalkí is also predicted, who will
arrive on a white horse and announce the end of the
current era ( caljuges); in this cataclysmic
period, the all-consuming fire will be replaced by rain, the
whole universe will be transformed into an infinite body of water
- the " ocean of causes and possibilities
" on which Vishnu will lie down for his sleep, in which he
will create a new Universe and through Brahma protector - see the
picture " Indian legend of the creation of the world " in chapter 5. "Cosmic God".
Avatars can even "chained" - eg. A major Indian guru suck
Baba ( ¶ 1926) was considered an avatar of Krishna. Some
followers of the Hare Krishna movement identify Christ
with Krishna, arguing that the names are similar. Similar meaning
to " avatar "the Messiah
"(Christ), in the Buddhist" bodhisattva
".
On Hinduism, see also: " Indian Classical Music "
BUDDHISM - awakening and enlightenment (without God)
Founder :
Siddhártama Gautama (623 - 560 BC)
father: King uddjódama , mother: Queen Marhámája
Path of Gautama Buddha to :
The meeting with the suffering ® Gautama renounced his
wealth and status ® rejection of extremes in Hinduism ® finding a path to a state
of perfect peace and enlightenment, liberation from desire and
suffering ® achieve Nirvana Ps Gautama
became the Buddha.
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According to legend, Gautama attained his perfect enlightenment while meditating under the Bodhi fig tree on the banks of the Nairaijana River. |
The four basic articles of the
Buddha's knowledge - the " four noble truths
":
1. Life contains suffering. 2.
Suffering is caused by the desire for enjoyment and benefit. 3.
Suffering can be overcome by removing lust. 4.
Greed can be removed by pilgrimage along the path of eight
lessons.
This path to the elimination of greed and thus suffering - the
path to enlightenment - a noble " eightfold path
" includes:
1. The right knowledge, understanding, opinion. 2.
Right thinking, intentions, decisions. 3.
Correct and true speech. 4. Correct behavior and
avoid (especially murder, theft, selfishness, harm).5.
The right way of life that would not cause anyone harm. 6.
The right effort and effort. 7. Correct
awareness, attention, notice. 8. Proper
concentration, meditation.
By consistently implementing these principles, we are on
the path to enlightenment and nirvana.
Buddhism teaches:
¨ Perfect goodness
and wisdom -
without a personal God
¨ Supreme knowledge - without God's revelation of
"truth"
¨ Possibilities of
redemption and salvation - without
an external redeemer (each is "his own savior")
Unity, compassion and love for all
creatures - the mantra of " Happy matter are
all creatures! "
The first and highest law: N O N - H A R M
The Buddhism coincides with Jainism
- a religion which is in northern India has also developed from
the Vedic tradition (see below).
Meditation in Buddhism - Bhava : The
general term meditation (described above in the passage
on Hinduism) in Buddhism is primarily " cultivation
of the mind " ( Bhavan ) - cultivation to
wisdom and compassion , to realize the unity of
all things, beings and events. It usually includes two aspects:
¨
Calming the mind and concentrating it on a certain reality (
samatha ).
¨
Achieving an intuitive insight ( vipassana ) into the
true essence of reality and thus attaining wisdom.
Samadhi ( samadhi = attachment, anchoring, concentration of the
mind on one object) - a clear and peaceful state of mind
In Buddhism, samadhi represents the cultivation
of the mind , its calming, concentration and focusing on
the true form of reality. This usually happens in the form of
meditation . The meaning of samadhi in Buddhism is not
as distinct as in Hinduism.
The main ideal of Buddhism: Attain
enlightenment and help all beings
Bodhisattva ( bodhi = awakening, satta = devotee ): A
person who has attained the highest enlightenment but out of love
and compassion for his neighbor gives up personal nirvana
and remains in the world to help enlightenment
and nirvana to others - himself as the last.
Buddhism is not, in
essence, a religion, but a philosophical
attitude towards life and the world.
There is no central authority, no dogmas . No
animosity, Buddhism is tolerant of all
religions. Those who have already attained knowledge and
enlightenment ("Buddhas") are not superior, do not
command, rebuke, punish, or threaten "God's punishment"
to anyone but they advise and show the way to
otherswith their knowledge and example.
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Ulun Danu - Hindu-Buddhist temple on Lake Bratan, Bali |
The Buddha did not consider himself
a God and a savior, but a teacher and counselor. He claimed,:
" Buddhas only show
the way. For enlightenment and salvation, everyone must work out
with their diligence.
"
However - historical development :
Inculturation, liturgy, temples, sacrifices ... ® worship
of the Buddha as God (people want to worship something
...) .
In doing so, they somewhat betrayed the original
teachings of the Buddha (but not nearly as the Christian Church,
especially the Catholic Church, trampled on God's commandments
and Christ's teachings of love of neighbor ...! ..) .
Three
primary schools (paths) of Buddhism:
¨ Hinayana ( Smaller Chariot )
- gaining wisdom and enlightenment through monastic life,
renunciation, study in a monastery; it also includes
Theravada ( The Way of the Elders ). It is a
"conservative" school, striving only for its own
enlightenment.
¨ Mahayana ( Greater Chariot )
- the path of enlightenment is for everyone, not just those who
give up the world. The nature of the Buddha is in all of us, for
enlightenment there is no hard self-discipline and austerity, but
contemplation and compassion for all living things; this school
can be described as "liberal". The Mahayana is
emphasized by the ideal of the bodhisattva - a
person who, after attaining perfect enlightenment himself, gives
up his own nirvana and strives for liberation and enlightenment
of other beings.
¨ Vajrayana ( Tantric Buddhism )
- the highest teaching is contained in the so-called tantras
, sacred texts ( tantra = fabric, warp, substance -
woven from the highest wisdom; also teaching, writing ).
Tantric lyrics are said to have originated from dialogues between
Shiva and Parvati (see also " Tibetan
music "). A key role here
is played by the initiated teacher, who initiates the disciples
and leads them on the right path to enlightenment. In addition to
general Buddhist principles, the emphasis here is on reciting
mantras and magical texts to invoke deities and occult forces,
working with "energies" (with "suggestions",
from today's point of view) , a number of rituals. There is a tantrism
of the right hand , focusing on the male deities, and a tantrism
of the left hand - the worship of the goddesses (who,
according to tradition, stood on the left hand of the male gods).
The goal of these practices is to reach the subconscious and use
the spiritual and magical powers that are hidden here. This
direction, partly influenced by Hinduism, spread in Tibet where
it persisted until now, while in India itself around 1000 it
practically disappeared.
Buddhism in China and
Japan
Chan = Zen - a school of meditative immersion in (Mahayana)
Buddhism.
According to tradition, Buddhism was brought to China by the
Indian monk Bodhidharma in the 5th-6th century, who settled in
the Shaolin Monastery.
Chan is specifically a Chinese offshoot of Buddhism,
influenced by Taoism .
Buddhism came to Japan from China in the 6th century in the form of the Chinese Buddhist direction , partially enriched with elements of Taoism . In Japan, it became domesticated as Zen Buddhism , and soon prevailed over the original domestic Shintoism , which, however, did not displace, but with which it coexisted closely for centuries to this day. Buddhist teachings have become one of the fundamental factors shaping Japanese culture.
S atori (jap. = Knowledge, enlightenment, awakening ;
also insight into unity ); Chinese Wu
Direction Rinzai (Lin-chi) -
koan practice - a paradoxical, rationally unsolvable
puzzle that can (but does not have to!) help in the appropriate
context to enlightenment ( satori ) with a sudden
flash of mind.
The direction of Sótó (Ts´ao-tung) -
zazen (silent meditation in sitting or squatting) - the
gradual attainment of enlightenment ( satori ).
Coexistence with Shinto in Japan | |
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Shinto = the path of the gods ( kami
) Shintoism - is the original Japanese religion dating from before the adoption of Buddhism. It is based on polytheism - the worship of numerous strange gods and animism - the worship of ancestral spirits . Shintoists believe that these deities ( kami ) can temporarily reside in certain objects of worship such as trees, stones, mountains (especially the sacred Mount Fuji), sacred objects and their favor can be gained through rituals . State Shintoism - the emperor is a descendant or representative of the deity and has due respect. |
W abi (Japanese wabishi = loneliness, loss, poverty
) - the spirit of cultivated poverty, simplicity,
unpretentiousness
Wabi is a philosophical-aesthetic
concept associated with Zen Buddhism. It is a voluntary and
noble simplicity and poverty, with which one identifies
internally, in the joy and feeling of balanced melancholy over
the unstoppable during one's life. It is the search for beauty
and goodness in simple things, the search "beneath the
surface" of things, the search for wealth in poverty, the
beauty in simplicity and simplicity. Wabi is also the
realization of self-discipline and a view of life from a
different angle. In terms of wabi , all people
are equal .
Another Japanese aesthetic term, S abi, has a
somewhat related meaning- gathering, maturity, shabby; the beauty
and soulfulness gained by age and the passage of time;
"patina". The combination of the concept of wabi-sabi
has found its beautiful application in the Japanese
tea ceremony of chado , in Japanese
ceramics and in the art of Japanese gardens (see
" Japanese music ", " Japanese
garden ").
Tibetan Buddhism
( Lamaism ):
Atantric variety of Buddhism. Enlightenment
leads to long chanting of mantras and prayers
(including the use of prayer wheels, flags or balls), the use of
rituals, etc., under the guidance of lamas (monk
teachers and leaders) - see " Tibetan music ".
JAINISM - non-harm and non-violence against all living things
Founder: Vardhamana Mahavira
(original name Vardhamána , ¶ 540 BC, V 486 BC in
Bihar)
Like Budddha, he came from a wealthy family, but he rejected the
position of a respected brahma?a and set out on the path of a
simple teacher.
Jainism (the name is derived from Sanskrit gin = winner
- over karma)
teaches that the universe is eternal without beginning
and end , it is uncreated (there is no creator). The
universe goes through an infinite number of cosmic cycles
, ups and downs, during which humanity also develops and
declines. The human individual consists of the soulwhich
is originally attached to the body. By liberating the soul from
matter, one can attain a state of eternal, blissful, omniscient
fulfillment - nirvana .
The soul is bound by " karmic matter "
as a result of wrongdoing. Selfish and cruel deeds pollute and
bind the soul, on the contrary, acts of kind, considerate and
unfavorable self-help help the soul to purify itself again and
free itself from matter. The basic command is ahinsa
- non-harm and non-violence to the living. The worst act is to
kill a living being - genies are essentially vegetarians.
Jainist monks often wear a veil over their mouths so that they
cannot swallow and kill more small insects. The basis of the
strict promise of these monks is the renunciation of killing,
stealing, lying, sexual activities, material possessions.
TAOISM - the search for the divine law governing the universe and the harmonious paths of human life
![]() |
T ao - the path, the trail ; figuratively: principle, essence, providence |
Harmony and order in nature and the universe : the manifestation of tao - the divine will or law of the penetrating and governing the Universe.
![]() |
Founder of Taoism: Lao-c´ ( Old Master ) (6th century BC) The book " Tao-te-ching " ("Book of the Way and Virtues") |
The most important
successor:
Chuang-c´ (Master Chuang,
original name Chuang Chou , circa
369-286 BC, Meng area)
![]() |
The concept of " Jin
" and " Jang " - unity and struggle of opposing forces
(dark-light, negative-positive, male-female,
earth-heaven, ....) |
The highest goal of Taoism :
To
find
the Tao , to leave the
outside world " behind " and
to merge with the coming and all being.
![]() |
The Taoist ideal of a harmonious peaceful life in harmony with nature is applied in many paintings of traditional Chinese landscape painting with typical symbolism: misty mountains, bizarre trees, calm waters of a lake and sages living and meditating in seclusion. |
Meditation in Taoism :
The general term meditation
(described above in the passage on Hinduism) in Taoism focuses
primarily on the meditation of "clear insight" (
vipassana ) - an intuitive insight into the
true essence of reality and thus the attainment of the
Tao .
The rational mind is subdued and we perceive and know reality
directly (intuitively, extrasensory, transcendental),
without a "filter" of conceptual thinking. In the
calmed mind, the intuitive insight appears completely
spontaneously: it begins to reflect things as they are. The
pervasive inner wisdom of the mind knows things
on the basis of being in oneness with them - in
oneness with the Tao.
" By entering into the purity of meditation, one attains an all-pervading vision which enables him to realize the absolute unity of the universe ." (Lao-c´)
Overlap of
Taoism
Although Taoism is specifically a Chinese spiritual direction, it
has occurred since about the 6th century. to a certain
"fusion" of the ideas of domestic Taoism and Buddhism
coming from India. On that basis, it originated in China Buddhist
direction Chan , the Japanese offshoot is known
as Zen -buddhismus.
Confucianism - the right way of human life and the functioning of society
![]() |
Founder: Kchung-fu-c´ (Master Kchung ) - Latin Confucius (551-479 BC) |
The moral nature of man
All people have (more or less) a developed sense of good and
evil. They are naturally equal (despite social
differences), they should strive for perfection.
L i - rules of conduct
: Decency, courtesy, order of things, ceremony, respect |
Woman - inner life : Humanity, love, cordiality, kindness, nobility |
By following " Li "
and " Women ", we are on the heavenly
path - we perform the Tao .
Confucianism can be considered " Taoism
transformed into practical life and governance of society
".
The difference from Taoism: Tao must be practiced actively !
" When everyone tries to live by Li and Women, everything is fine in personal life, in the family, in the state and in the world. " (Confucius)
A small example of Confucian
wisdom:
On one occasion, a disciple asked Confucius, "Master, what
is the most appropriate way to serve the Gods?". The teacher
replied, "Before you serve the gods, make sure you serve the
people around you - to help make them wise, honest, just, and
virtuous. Only when you do this, devote yourself to the
gods."
On the cultural context of Eastern philosophical trends, see also music: " Chinese ", " Japanese ", " Tibetan ".
Spiritual teachings and religions in the modern
world, esotericism
- dialogue and interconnection of cultures and spiritual
directions -
Here are just a few incomplete observations and remarks on this topic - rather as topics for reflection and discussion.
The
end of feudalism in Europe
The Christian Church is
losing power and monopoly as an institution providing
ideological patronage to feudal dictatorship. However, it
contributed to her spiritual revival and gradual
retreat from dogmatism.
®
Religious freedom, secularization and atheization of society.
Enlightenment,
religious relativism :
All religions and spiritual directions - if free from dogmatism -
are essentially equal . Religion is no longer
necessary, it can be replaced by enlightened and soulful
atheism or pantheism .
![]() |
The Tree of Faith and
Religion Faith or religion is like a tree with many branches . The trunk of this tree - the universal spiritual principle - is rooted deep in the human psyche. From this universal spiritual principle grow individual churches , sects , denominations - branches of a tree, which are basically equal . " All paths are real !" Proclaimed the well-known Indian guru Saja Baba. However, we know that in the case of a tree, in addition to healthy, vital, fruiting branches, some branches are dry, diseased or infested with pests; such branches not only do not bear fruit, but can jeopardize the successful growth of the whole tree. These churches and sects resemble these dry or infested branches, in which dogmatism, insincerity, fundamentalism and the abuse of religious sentiment for the material and power goals of individuals or groups prevailed, at the expense of other people ... |
Dialogue and
interconnection of cultures and spiritual directions
Individual cultures, spiritual and philosophical directions
should no longer fight hostile, but communicate
with each other and enrich each other withthe
best they have achieved.
The
spread of Eastern spirituality in the Euro-American world has
stimulated the development of democracy and especially the mass
media since the end of the 19th century. the emergence of a
series of spiritual currents and sects whose
founders either wanted to "make themselves visible" (as
is often the case with sects) or considered it useful to promote
ideas that would help other people to "enlightenment and
salvation". If we focus on the directions based on Eastern
spirituality, we can generally say that yoga, (Zen) Buddhism,
Taoism or the teachings of the gurus ( Krishna ,
Saya Baba , ..) are a kind of counterweight.
the soulless consumerist way of life of Western society,
dominated by the pursuit of success and capital. From a number of
newer spiritual and religious directions, we will briefly mention
three, which are based on traditional Eastern
spirituality and have something to say about the
relationship between man, nature and the universe, as well as the
ethical issues of our direction.
Bahá´i
This religious teaching comes from an Islamic background, but it
has become free from all dogmatism. The initial impetus for the
emergence of this religious movement dates back to 1844, when a
member of the Muslim sect, Sheikh Mulla Hussein, met
Sajjid Ali-Muhammad in Shiraz, Iran, whom he considered a
messenger of God - named Bab ( gate ). When Bab
was shot in Tabriz in 1850, his disciple Mirza Hussein Ali, who
had previously adopted the new name Bahá´ulláh
(the power and glory of God ), declared himself the
promised messenger of God and began teaching new religious ideas:
Unity of God - God is only for the whole world; The
unity of religion - all religions originally come from
God, God has revealed them through his messengers, Bahá´ism
unites them; Equality - all racial, ethnic and
religious prejudices are harmful, they must be rejected. Man and
woman are equal, they are the two "wings" of humanity,
allowing "to take off to heaven"; Possibility
of education - everyone (especially all children) should
have the same opportunity to get an education; The unity
of science and faith - religion and science are two
aspects of truth and should not contradict each other; Unification
of the world - elected representatives from each country
should create a " world parliamentIn the interests
of understanding, a "world language" should be created,
in which, in addition to their mother tongue, each child should
be taught at school.
His son, Abdul Bahá , became the successor of
Bahá´ullah , who made a significant contribution to the
organization and This teaching is one of the purest and most
tolerant religions, and its followers profess high moral
values comparable to Buddhism - they do not harm or
slander anyone, do not gamble, do not use drugs and alcohol,
consider marriage as a lifelong connection (both physically and
spiritually). ).
Hare Krishna
This movement, based on Hindu Vedic traditions ,
was founded by Indian guru AC Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada , originally named Abhaj Caran De ( ¶ r. 1896 in
Calcutta, in 1977 in the USA), whom his guru in India called for a
message of faith spread in America. He began his mission in the
West in 1965, where he first taught traditional Hindu religious
texts, which he further modified and transformed to appeal
primarily to Western intellectuals disappointed with the
consumerist way of life. He and his collaborators wrote a number
of books that the movement's supporters distribute around the
world.
The basic articles of faith are
based on the traditional Vedic texts of Hinduism
and Hinduismalso from "divinely
inspired" legends and epics - Ramayama
and Mahabharata ; therefore, the basic
Hindu notions of the soul-atman, karma, reincarnation (mentioned
above in the passage "Hinduism") are preserved here. A
key role in the teachings of Hare Krishna is played by a part of
the Mahabharata called the Bhagavatgita
(a song of nobility), where Krishna , acting in
the symbolic role of a chariot driver, preaches selfless actions
and devotion to the divine principle in Atman unity in dialogue
with Arjuna. A characteristic feature of this direction (which
places it somewhat among the sects) is the absolutization
of K???a *) :K???a is the supreme God,
the Lord, the Absolute Truth. It has many forms (one of them was
Jesus Christ). He claims that the Bible and the Qur'an are also
based on Vedic texts, but their meaning has been distorted over
the centuries by various translations and interpretations.
*) This is different from the usual Hindu concept, in which
Krishna is one of the avataras of Vishna ...
Orthodox followers of Krishna, dressed in saffron
robes, live in ashrams, chanting mantras under the guidance of a
spiritual leader ( guru ),) they study mainly
Bhagavatgita, they take care of the statues of Hindu deities
(these statues are considered to be the incarnation of Krishna),
they observe strict austerities including purity (washing),
vegetarianism, work, spreading the faith ...
*) It is mainly mahamantra "Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna,
Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare. Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Hare Hare
....".
Transcendental Meditation - TM
This latest spiritual movement, also based on Hindu Vedic
traditions , was founded by Indian guru
Maharishi Mahesh Yoga ( Maharishi = great sage,
Mahesh - original surname, Yoga = practicing yoga who attained
oneness with God, the transcendent ); originally named
Mahesh Prasad Varma ( ¶ r.1917 in Jabalpur in Madha Pradesh in northern India).
In collaboration with his guru Swami Brahmananda Sarasvati
, called guru Dev , Mahesh Yoga
developed a meditation method that is accessible to everyone. In
1956, he moved the Maharishi to the United States and then to
Great Britain. His movement was then called the Movement for
Spiritual Renewal, was later renamed the Science of
Creative Intelligence . In London, his popularity was
boosted by meeting members of the Beatles .
The basis of transcendental meditation is the
utterance of a mantra - a secret phrase or
syllable, for 20 minutes in the morning and evening. Each
follower receives his mantra (containing the names of
Hindu gods and gurus) individually during an initiation festival
called puja , which takes place in Sanskrit. Regular
meditations should lead to a source of thoughts, to the
development of latent creative potential - "creative
intelligence", to pure consciousness, enlightenment and even
to the acquisition of supernormal abilities of levitation.
- the art of hovering in spite of gravity, the so-called TM
sidhi technique (it is not known if anyone has already
succeeded ..? .. - the demonstrated "jumping in a Turkish
seat" is a respectable gymnastic performance, but far from
real levitation) .
One of the "theories" of TM is the so-called Maharishi
effect , according to which TM affects not only
practitioners but also "others" in the wider
environment, leading to an alleged increase in spiritual
standards and a reduction in crime, traffic accidents and other
negative phenomena ...
The spiritual teaching of transcendental meditation
is particularly interesting from our scientific-philosophical
point of view . The original scientific education of the
founder Maharishi(studied physics at the University of
Allahabad) led him and his colleagues to try to find connections
between old Vedic religious texts and modern physical theories.
There are certainly many apparent and real analogies, especially
the spiritual effort for a unified conception of being
is quite coherent with the current unitarization concepts of
science. But Maharishi and his associates go even further: on the
basis of similarity between the characters
contained in the Vedas and the mathematical symbols contained in
the formulas of modern physical theories, especially the unitary
theories of the field, he tries to claim that true physical
knowledge was already contained in the divinely inspired Vedas.
They claim that all the natural and social sciences, laws and
events can be formulated using mathematical formulas, that they
have created Vedic science and the technology of unitary
field theory to perfectly control nature. He argues that
transcendental meditation is not a religion or a philosophy, but
a "natural and scientifically proven technique." Such
an absolutely conceived concept of TM is undoubtedly wrong
- out of random similarityrandomly generated
features of ancient spiritual texts (however wise and valuable
for their time) and equally randomly generated mathematical
symbols used in equations expressing the laws of physics, such
far-reaching judgments certainly cannot be
inferred! TM is not a science , but a religious
direction.
Nevertheless, transcendental meditation can
help some people to attain the comprehensive development of
personality, spiritual self-realization, and the refinement of
moral principles without losing interest in practical daily life.
Other Newer Eastern Spiritual Paths
In addition to the three newer Eastern spiritual directions
mentioned, there are a number of different teachings and sects,
mostly around gurus based (at least in part) on Hindu concepts.
We can name, for example:
Swami Vivekananda (original name
Narendranath Datta ,
¶ 1863, V 1902, disciple of
Ramakrishna ) - an Indian guru promoting reformed Hinduism,
especially in the West and the USA. He proceeded from Hinduism as
the "mother of all religions", but synthesized
the ideas of Vedanta and yoga, especially karma yoga,
with some concepts of European philosophy. He proclaimed the
spiritual unity of all religions, the "world religion"
- "Space gospel "and progressive views
on the development of society - the future belongs to"
government workers ".
Message St. Grail (founder Abd-Ru-Shin
¶ 1875 in 1941, which proclaimed messiah) - a quirky combination
of Eastern and Western concepts. World On the border of the
divine level stands the symbolic castle of the Grail, in which is
preserved a bowl or chalice, in which the blood of the crucified
Christ was allegedly captured - the Holy Grail itself
. The path from gross to spiritual levels take place in the form
of karma and reincarnations, similar to
Hinduism. *) Around this "gross" and
"subtle"-massions, there has been some speculation
seeking erroneous (pseudo) physical
generalization ...
Mahatma Gandhi (original name Mohandas Kramchand Gandhi, ¶ 1869, V 1948) - a
prominent Indian thinker based on Hinduism and emphasizing
ahinsan - nonviolence and non-harm . He
made a decisive contribution to the liberation of India from
colonial rule and to the creation of an independent Federal
Republic of India in 1947. He sought progressive reforms
, the abolition of outdated social prejudices, especially the
caste system. Enlightened successor of Gandhi was
Javaharlal Nehru ( ¶ 1889, V1964), which
also sought to modernize social conditions in India *) and in the
conditions of a divided world for peaceful cooperation of
all countries, regardless of political establishment - the
concept of " Panchashil " (Sanskrit. = Five
principles ).
*) Despite significant partial successes, however, unlike
neighboring China, India has failed to embark on a path of
harmonious development and prosperity, failing to close the
abysmal social disparities and catastrophic poverty of a large
part of the population. It has not been possible (again, unlike
China) to limit the population explosion of unproductive people
condemned to backwardness, suffering, disease and misery
bordering on famine ...
Osho (Indian guru Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh , originally
named Mohan Chandra Rajneesh , ¶ 1931, In 1990)
- teachings based on Hinduism and combining Eastern meditation
techniques with elements of psychotherapy, including the release
of emotions and sexual satisfaction (arguing, for example, that
"orgasm is samadhi" ...) . He developed the method of
"dynamic meditation".
Yoga in daily life (founder of
Indian guru Paramhansa Swami Maheshwarananda , ¶ 1946, also
called Swamiji ) - is based on the teachings of the
Vedas, upanishads and especially on a well-developed system of
practicing yoga - combining all yoga practices mentioned above in
"Hinduism". It is a tolerant system suitable for
today's people in the western territories.
Sri Chinmoy (Indian guru originally named Chinmoy Kumar Ghose
, ¶
1931)
- teaching of "integral yoga" combining Hindu spiritual
techniques with art and sport. Sri Chinmoy's activities in
promoting peace in the worldare remarkable.
Satya Saja Baba (Indian guru by
the original name of Sathyanarayana Raju , ¶ 1927,
declared himself Krishna's avatar)
- Hindu teaching combined with psychology, where, however, it
holds views often contradicting the current distorted Western
psychiatry. It announces the control of emotions and impulses,
strict suppression of anger and aggression. In religious matters,
it promotes tolerance and equivalence of different spiritual
paths, churches and denominations - all religions are different
paths to a single goal. Sája Bába became famous, among other
things, for his art of "materializing objects"
(however, it is considered by independent observers to be common
trick-making tricks) .
Scientology (Latin scio =
knowledge , Greek logos = doctrine )
- is a religious system founded by the American philosopher and
psychologist L. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986) in 1950. According to
this doctrine, each person consists of body, mind and spirit -
the spiritual "I", for which the name thetan
is used . Man as an immortal spiritual being has unlimited
abilities to solve his problems, to acquire lasting happiness, to
attain new higher states of consciousness and abilities. However,
these divine abilities are violated in each of us by
psychological problems that have "wrapped up" in us
during this or past lives. According to Scientology, all these
problems can be eliminated by the techniques of so-called dianetics
(Greek dia = through, through, nous = soul ; -
"through soul to body") . Its main method is auditing
- a paid conversation between the client and the therapist (a
form of confession) in which he recalls his painful experiences,
from which he can free himself and acquire a state of " clear
" with the help of the therapist ; then nothing prevents him
from achieving a perfect life. When auditing, an electrometer is
often used (an e-meter to record mental stress - a kind
of "lie detector"). Very roughly, the nature of
Scientology lies somewhere between Eastern spirituality and
Western psychoanalysis (although Hubbard rejected Western
psychiatric methods) .
Despite its name, Scientology is not based on
any scientific knowledge , it is a
psychological-religious direction. It is organized in the Church
of Scientology, headquartered in Los Angeles, later
relocated to Clearwater, Florida. American origin has given this
direction a rather commercial character.
New Age - is a
"postmodern" movement trying to find alternatives
to almost everything prior lifestyle, culture and knowledge. It
can bring new inspiring perspectives in the humanities ( new
age music is interesting ), but in the field of science,
especially natural sciences, it often resorts to erroneous
and pseudo-scientific concepts (psychotronics,
homeopathy, aura, alchemy, ufology, etc.). In the spirit of
postmodernism, there is often no distinction between proven and
working knowledge, laws and theories (behind
which the work of generations of researchers is behind) and
between mere opinions and false speculations
(unsupported by nothing but the imagination or wishes of
incompetent authors).
Some
newer Western sects and denominations
For completeness, we will briefly mention some newer Western
religions, more or less based on Christianity , some
with possibly. combined with Eastern directions (such as the
aforementioned Holy Grail community ) or African
polytheistic traditions.
Jehovah's Witnesses ("Jehovah's Witnesses")
is a large, worldwide religious society or sect that was founded
in the 1970s and 1980s. originally as a Bible study society
. In 1870, Ch.T. Russel founded an independent Bible study group
in Pittsburgh, which began publishing the Watchtower magazine,
which is still published today. The successor was JFRutheford
(1917-1942), who established an authoritarian and hierarchical
organization of the company with its headquarters in Brooklyn. In
1942, he became president of NHKnorr, which organized the
promotion of learning and the establishment of branches around
the world.
The basic dogma of Jehovah's Witnesses is a literal
interpretation of the Bible , especially the Old
Testament (the folly of this dogma is clear when we realize
how distorted these religious texts were first distorted orally
and then in a variety of translations) . The refusal of a
blood transfusion also follows from this literal
interpretation: God gave the command "you shall not eat
blood!". This certainly meant the ancient pagan custom of
drinking the blood of slaughtered animals, which without heat
treatment could contain many pathogens (of course, there could be
no talk of a transfusion under strict hygienic and hematological
conditions!) ... Jehovah's Witnesses believe that all Bible prophecies
it has either already been fulfilled or will certainly be
fulfilled soon. On the basis of their peculiar
interpretations of the Bible, the Jehovists have already
predicted the "end of the world" - Armageddon
(1914, then 1925, the last time it was 1975), and only
they will survive and they will have eternal life on a
perfect earth. Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate Christmas or
other holidays because they do not appear in Scripture but have a
historical origin in pagan customs and traditions. A positive
feature is the enforcement of a strict moral code and their pacifism
- they refuse to take up arms and serve in the military.
Mormons ( The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints , founder of J. Smith in the USA
in 1830)
- is a peculiar offshoot of Christian teaching, which, in
addition to the Old Testament, is based on the so-called Book
of Mormon. According to legend, this book describes the
fate of the Israelites, who, around 600 BC, after the destruction
of the Jerusalem Temple, allegedly sailed to America - the new
Promised Land. Their descendants are the original inhabitants of
pre-Columbian America - the Indians . According
to this legend, Jesus Christ also went to America, where he
passed on his teachings to the Nephite tribe . They were
murdered by the Lamanites, and the true teaching of Christ is
preserved only in the text of the Book of Mormon, written by the
only surviving Nephite, the chronicler of Mormon. The prophet
Mormon is through the angel Moroni He revealed to
J.Smith, told him the stories, and handed him the gold plates of
the book. J. Smith translated (with the help of miracle stones)
the Book of Mormon into English and then returned the alleged
gold plates with the original text to the angel *). God the
Father and Jesus Christ also appeared to him, and they gave him
the authority of the prophet and the true priesthood to organize
"the church of Jesus Christ in its original form
." The main center of the Mormons is in the state of Utah in
the Salt Lake Valley in Salt Lake City.
*) It is therefore clear who is the author of the text ... No
historical or archaeological finds confirm the
journey of the Israelites to America according to the Book of
Mormon. After all, they do not even confirm the exile of the
Israelites in Egypt and their return, which is one of the main
stones of the Jewish religion and the Old Testament.
Voodoo (Voodoo) (African-American religion originated in Haiti)
- is a special syncretic combination of Christianity
(Roman Catholicism) with the polytheism of the
natives of West Africa, with elements of religion of the Indian
tribes of the Caribbean and Amazon, as well as occult and magical
teachings (eg E. Levi). The history of voodoo dates back to the
end of the 17th century, when forcibly imported slaves retained
their original African traditions and faith, while slavers forced
them to baptism and the Christian (Catholic) faith. Voodoo
recognizes the only god Bon Dieu - Good God
- Bondye . Angels and spirits called Iwa
serve this God . The priest of this religion is called houngan
, the mambo priestess; in addition to Christian prayers,
they lead rituals, singing songs and dancing.
Rastafarians ( Ras Tafari
is the original name of the Ethiopian emperor Haile Salassia
)
- are a religious association of blacks whose
ancestors were forcibly abducted from Africa on slave ships,
especially to America, where they became the target of racial
oppression, persecution and inhuman treatment. MMGarvey of
Jamaica (1887-1940) founded the General Association to
promote blacks , supported their repatriation, and in 1920
predicted the arrival of a black king; from this developed the
mentioned religious direction.
The Rastafarians claim that God, Jesus Christ, and the early
Christians were not white, but black; whites "robbed"
the Christian religion of them. The impetus for their teachings
was the coronation of the "black king" Ras
Tafari in 1930 under the Ethiopian emperor Haile
Selassie , with enlightened and progressive views *),
promoting the unification of Africa. The Rastafarians accepted
the view that Haile Selassie was the Messiah, a direct descendant
of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba; despite his death in
1975, he is still alive spiritually. Blacks will be free when
they return to Africa. The Rastafarian religion is tolerant,
encouraging universal peace, love, unification, harmony.
*) He tried to reduce the power of the nobility, abolished
slavery , introduced the constitution, parliament and
the first signs of democracy. However, even he
could not "transcend his shadow" of privileged feudal
origin and overcome the resistance of rich aristocratic circles.
The new government in Ethiopia attempted more rigorous reforms
after the founding of the republic in 1974, but also
unsuccessfully, partly for President MHMariam's dictatorial
policy, which led to violence with many murders and the civil war
he lost ...
The Moon Sect ( Holy Spirit Association for unification of world
Christianity , founder of the Rev. SMMoon (1920-2012))
- is based on Moon's assertion that at Easter 1936, Jesus prayed
to him during a prayer on a North Korean mountain, who chose him
as his successor ("3rd month") to bring the work of the
kingdom of God on earth. Through thoughtful propaganda and
"brainwashing," the sect has especially attracted many
young people, in Korea, the United States, and elsewhere in the
world. He is engaged in commercial business, owns many factories,
is also involved in politics (he opposes the UN, supports
right-wing extremism *). In 1972, South Korean billionaire Moon
moved to the United States.
*) Moon claimed: " Before Eve became Adam's wife, she
had an affair with Lucifer (in the form of a serpent). From this
union was born Cain, the ancestor of the Communists. A second
child, Abel (born with Adam), founded a family from from which
the democracies of South Korea and the United States come
".religious-political demagoguery !
Moon held mass weddings for hundreds and thousands of people who
had never seen each other before. By establishing an
"exemplary family", Christ's spiritual redemption was
to be accomplished by "bodily redemption." Every new
member of the sect originally had to be cleansed of inherited sin
by having sex with the Moon ...; later it was replaced by
spiritual purification.
In addition to these larger and more
widespread sects, a number of smaller religions
and sects have emerged . Some are relatively enlightened
and tolerant , founded with a sincere effort to elevate
and deepen the spiritual life. Others are based on bizarre
nonsense egocentric psychopaths who claim to be messiahs or gods
and try to impose their "only right truth" on others
through "brainwashing" or even violence, in order to
control them ...
Which
religion is "true" or which is "best"?
The considerable number and diversity of different religions and
spiritual directions naturally raises the question: "
Which religion is the right one? ". The
question posed in this way can be viewed from various
perspectives and can be answered in basically three ways:
¨ None !
Such a harsh answer comes from a strictly scientific
point of view. Most religions are based on
unsubstantiated legends and unreliable claims, created by complex
processes and errors in the long historical periods of the
pre-scientific era, when people did not know much about the
world. A certain exception is Buddhism, Taoism and Confectionism,
which are not based on dogmatic cults and are rather
philosophical directions that turn to our inner self and
consciousness.
¨ Only mine!
- others are fake, fake. This is a rather primitive answer of
stupid people who often do not know well enough what they
believe in and especially why they believe in
it; they insist on it all the more fanatically. The same right
can be claimed by dogmatic believers of completely different
religions, leading to contradictions and
religious intolerance.
Note 1: We omit here the
purposeful (and often materially conditioned) dogmatism of the
representatives of some churches and sects.
¨ All religions are true ,
they are justdifferent waysto a common goal - a
psychological understanding of the world and the meaning of our
existence in it, amessage of good, love and
hope. This enlightened approach leads totoleranceand
mutual enrichment of different religions, to the suppression of
dogmatism. Note 2:
Some believers take as a criterion of the
"authenticity" of religion the factor of duration in
immutability and uniformity, abundance and prevalence. However,
it is a very subjective and historically conditioned criterion
..! .. (some sects and churches state the number of their members
or supporters even several times larger than the reality ...)
If we accept the last mentioned opinion of religious
relativism , another question arises: " Which
religion is 'the best' "? There is no
objective answer to this question, it is a question of individual
psychological foundation, which each person has somewhat
different. Such a religion, spiritual or philosophical direction
(including atheistic) can be considered "best" for a
given person,that makes him a better
person . Which leads him to greater love and compassion
for his neighbors and all creatures, to tolerance and
understanding, to ethical behavior, to good in its true sense ...
For some it is the traditional "local"
religion or ideas instilled in them by their parents, others
embark on the path of their own spiritual search. The result of
this search may also be "soulful atheism", in which the
ethical message stems from a thoughtful and felt knowledge of
objective reality. Personal examples of enlightened and noble
people are often an important guide here. The problematic and
disorienting criterion may be the opposite examples of bad people
who use religion as a cover for their shameful behavior; such
people (sometimes even in important positions in various churches
and sects) can falsely discredit even real positive values ??in
the eyes of seekers ... And partly also those who, while
professing certain positive thoughts and values, are right,
From the point of view of the relationship between
science and faith, these issues are discussed in the essay "
Science and Religion ".
Advantages and disadvantages of contemporary
spiritual directions
The interconnection of Eastern and Western spiritual directions -
if it is meant sincerely - leads to a significant
enrichment of inner life .
And in fact:Even this area does not avoid a certain fashion and
commercialization - in stark contrast to the "
spirit of Eastern wisdom ". If more diligent study
and meditation leads us to stop seeing the needs and sufferings
of other creatures, then this veil of selfishness
will close the gate to true enlightenment, let
alone attain "nirvana."
How to believe in the enlightenment of, for example, rich
businessmen, bankers or managers who go to ashrams in India to
gain energy and "spiritual strength" to make money even
more successfully and control their subordinates ..? ..
Pose and idolatry × versus × true spirituality
God's gaze would rest on those who do not believe in Him, but do in the spirit of His commandments, rather than those who so ostentatiously believe in Him and confess that He does not believe them again. |
He who does not have God in his heart, let him not take him in his mouth! |
If we do not try to live
in the spirit of our faith or the spiritual direction we profess
, it is only a pose and hypocrisy
that will bring no real benefit to us or our neighbors!
This is true of all faiths, including Christianity: we
often encounter "believers" in our country who do
shameful things, pray and confess, and think that they are
"pure" again without trying to make amends for
their injustices to others - and they can continue to
commit evil until the next confession ...
True spirituality is not created by blind faith,
chanting prayers or mantras, performing religious rituals,
breathing and other yoga exercises, or any other movements or
manipulations - all this can (but does not have to) only help our
spirituality. True spirituality is completed only by our effort
to cultivate relationships with people and other
nature, compassion, love, honesty, mercy, willingness to help
others, work for a good cause. Then our whole life can become a single
meditation - constant, conscious or subconscious, wise
and joyful attention in each of our activities ...
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