AstroNuclPhysics ® Nuclear Physics - Astrophysics - Cosmology | |||||
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COSMIC
NUCLEAR ALCHEMY
Vojtech
Ullmann In the lecture on the relationship between nuclear physics and astrophysics and cosmology, we will approach a fascinating scenario of the formation of elements in space and the chemical evolution of the universe at various stages of its evolution. |
S y l a b u s
NATURE - NATURAL SCIENCE
The most basic questions of science: |
What
is the essence and internal composition of matter? What laws govern the duration, motion, and transformation of matter? What is the essence of the universe? Did the universe come into being spontaneously, or was it created by God? |
MACROWORLD 10 -8 m <d <10 3 light years
Classical physics (Newtonian mechanics,
thermodynamics, electrodynamics ...)
MICROWORLD - nitro matter d <10 -8 cm
Quantum physics, atomistics, nuclear physics , elementary particles
MEGA-WORLD
- distant universe d> 10 3 world years
Special theory of relativity - high
velocities ® time dilation, length contraction
General theory of relativity - gravity ® curved
spacetime
Astrophysics + Cosmology
Matter -
substance
Basic
question:
What is the essence and internal composition of matter ?
Divisibility of substances: | e unlimited divisible - continuum |
î limited division - structure - a t o m s |
What is the carrier of
the properties of substances?
Substance properties: alchemy ® chemistry
® physics ; Chemical properties Þ e l e m e n t s
Mendeleev's
periodic table of chemical elements ( elements marked in red are radioactive - they do not have stable isotopes) |
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H 1 |
He 2 |
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Li 3 |
Be 4 |
B 5 |
C 6 |
N 7 |
O 8 |
F 9 |
Ne 10 |
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Na 11 |
Mg 12 |
Al 13 |
Si 14 |
P 15 |
S 16 |
Cl 17 |
Ar 18 |
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K 19 |
Ca 20 |
Sc 21 |
Ti 22 |
V 23 |
Cr 24 |
Mn 25 |
Fe 26 |
Co 27 |
Ni 28 |
Cu 29 |
Zn 30 |
Ga 31 |
Ge 32 |
As 33 |
Se 34 |
Br 35 |
Kr 36 |
Rb 37 |
Sr 38 |
Y 39 |
Zr 40 |
Nb 41 |
Mo 42 |
Tc 43 |
Ru 44 |
Rh 45 |
Pd 46 |
Ag 47 |
Cd 48 |
In 49 |
Sn 50 |
Sb 51 |
Te 52 |
I 53 |
Xe 54 |
Cs 55 |
Ba 56 |
La .. î |
Hf 72 |
Ta 73 |
W 74 |
Re 75 |
Os 76 |
Ir 77 |
Pt 78 |
Au 79 |
Hg 80 |
Tl 81 |
Pb 82 |
Bi 83 |
Po 84 |
At 85 |
Rn 86 |
Fr 87 |
Ra 88 |
Ak .. î |
Rf 104 |
Db 105 |
Sg 106 |
Bh 107 |
Hs 108 |
Mt 109 |
Ds 110 |
Rg 111 |
Uub 112 |
Uut 113 |
Uuq 114 |
Up 115 |
Uuh 116 |
New 117 |
Uuo 118 |
The nthanoids: | La 57 |
Ce 58 |
Pr 59 |
Nd 60 |
Pm 61 |
Sm 62 |
Eu 63 |
Gd 64 |
Tb 65 |
Dy 66 |
Ho 67 |
Er 68 |
Tm 69 |
Yb 70 |
Lu 71 |
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If tinoids: | Ac 89 |
Th 90 |
Pa 91 |
U 92 |
Np 93 |
Pu 94 |
Am 95 |
Cm 96 |
Bk 97 |
Cf 98 |
Es 99 |
Fm 100 |
Md 101 |
No 102 |
Lr 103 |
CONTRIBUTION
OF ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
- deep penetration
into the interior of matter -
Understanding
the structure of matter - What is the carrier of the properties of
substances? - Atoms!
Atomic Physics: structure of atoms Þ substance chemistry
Thomson
"pudding" model of Rutherford scattering experiments Þ planetary
model
ÞBohr
model
Electrical fusion of atoms Þ all the diversity of substances in our world |
The "head" of
an atom is the atomic nucleus :
The structure and properties of the atom are given by the
structure of its nucleus
- the number of Z protons in the nucleus determines the electronic configuration of the shell and the occupation of the valence
shell -
Core dimensions: » 10 -13
cm (100,000 times smaller than an atom!), Density r» 10 14
g / cm 3
ß
Hopelessness of medieval alchemy's efforts to transmutate
elements!
(they had no idea
about the nucleus, they "scraped" atoms only on the
valence shell)
Paradox: alchemists were often astronomers
- they had no idea that stars that observe at
night can do
what they try in vain on a large scale for billions of years!
Nuclear physics:
structure of atomic nuclei, strong and weak (nuclear)
interactions
All the diversity of species and
structures of atomic nuclei, their excitation and
radiation as well as nuclear reactions, nuclear physics explains by the idea of protons and neutrons occupying certain energy levels in the field of nuclear forces. |
Knowledge
of the properties of elementary particles
- leptons, baryons, hadrons
- quarks, gluons ...
- particles - antiparticles
Unitary field
theory
electroweak interaction - GUT (grandunifikaèní theory) - supergravity - Superstrings
Scheme various stages and processes
unification of four fundamental interactions in nature (see
porobnìji §B.6 " Unification of fundamental
interactions. Supergravity. Superstrings. " Books " gravity, black holes, and space - time physics ").
Radioactivity and nuclear reactions
Reaction (n, g ) - slow neutron radiation capture -
production of b -
emitters in the reactor
99 Mo ( ® 99m Tc), 131 J, 59 Fe, 60
Co, 137 Cs, 133 Xe, ......
Reaction (p, g ) - production of b +-radiators in accelerator
(cyclotron)
201 Tl, 67 Ga, 111
In, 81 Rb ( ® 81m Kr), 18 F, 15 O, 11
C ........
Industrial use of radiation
Defectoscopy, X-ray fluorescence analysis, neutron activation
analysis ...
Biological use of radiation
Binding energy of
nucleons in nuclei ® nuclear energy
Energy
recovery from atomic nuclei - Nuclear energetics
235 U + n ® » 140 X + » 90 Y + (2-3) n (+ 200 MeV); 238 U + n ® 239 U ® ( b - ) 239 Pu ® fission .....
- about 0.9 MeV / nucleon is released Þ efficiency: < 0.1% from E = mc 2
Our
terrestrial efforts to use nuclear energy are just clumsy
attempts
to emulate what stars have been able to do for billions of years!
What are we missing? - Strong gravity.
Basic
question:
Where did the
elements come from in nature?
Option 1: |
All
the elements God created "with his hands" at
the same time as the creation of the world, or : All the elements were created at the origin of the universe . (and since then they only merge with each other) |
Option 2: |
When
the universe was created, only the simplest elements were
created, more complex (heavier) elements were created gradually during the evolution of the universe: - cosmic nucleogenesis - |
ASTROPHYSICS - physical phenomena in universe
Nuclear
astrophysics
Application of the laws and phenomena of
nuclear physics to processes taking place in space
COSMOLOGY - structure and evolution of the universe as a whole
Origin, development and end of the closed universe : | |
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Early
universe - the "big bang" - hadron era ß lepton era - primordial nucleosynthesis ß era radiation ß era substances - formation for up galaxies, galaxies, stars ß Next to nucleosynthesis in stars The end
of the universe: |
Pre - big-bang phase + big bang itself: neither nucleons nor nuclei of atoms existed.
1. Hadron era ~ 10 -6 s <t ~ 10 -4 s, r > 10 14 g / cm 3 , T> 10 12 ° K
The majority of matter in space was formed by a mixture of
emerging and annihilating heavy particles and
antiparticles with a strong interaction (protons, neutrons,
mesons, hyperons - ie hadrons), whose number was about the same
as photons and neutrinos; there is a thermodynamic equilibrium
between all these particles. The strong role
between hadrons plays a dominant role here .
Baryon asymmetry : an excess of nucleons, about 1 baryon
per 10 8
particles.
Particle formation
H 1 |
- only protons - hydrogen nuclei | ||||||||||||||||
2. Lepton era ~ 10 -4 s <t <~ 10 s, ~ 10 14 g / cm 3 > r > ~ 10 4 g / cm 3 , ~ 10 12 > T> ~ 5.10 9 ° K
When the temperature drops so much, that kT ( k is
Boltzman's constant) is significantly lower than the resting
energy of the proton, nucleons and antinucleons annihilate
each other (due to baryon asymmetry except for the small surplus
of nucleons, which led to the formation of the substance now in
space); the mass of the universe then mainly consisted of an
equilibrium mixture of light particles -
photons, electrons, positrons, neutrinos and antineutrinos.
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The Lepton era free neutrons are - "rescue" of neutrons in helium - ß primary nucleosynthesis |
H 1 |
75% hydrogen H, 25% helium He | He 2 |
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3. Radiation era ~ 10 s <t <~ 10 13 s @ 300,000 years, ~ 10 4 g / cm 3 > r > ~ 10 -21 g / cm 3 , ~ 10 10 ° K> T> 3.10 10 ° K
At the beginning of this stage (also called the
radiation-dominating era of the photon plasma), the synthesis of
helium and the annihilation of electrons with positrons are still
complete. When the energy of the primary photons dropped below
0.5 MeV, which corresponds to the rest energy of the electron,
the radiation ceased to have a significant effect on the further
evolution of the elements in space.
- from the point of view of
nucleosynthesis, nothing happens
4. The era of matter (post-recombination period),
which begins with the completion of
recombination (approximately 300 00 years
after the Big Bang) and continues to this
day. The temperature of the substance , which
becomes the main carrier of energy-mass, decreases as a -2 during expansion
and should currently reach only about 10 -2 ° K; the temperature of the separated
"relic" radiation, changing as a -1 , dropped from the original 3000 ° K to today's about
2.7 ° K. The expansion of the universe transformed what was once
light into microwaves.
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Formation of large-scale
structure of the universe ß The formation of galaxies and clusters of galaxies ß Star formation |
The story of
cosmic nucleogenesis continues and graduates !
or
thermonuclear reactions inside stars
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Districts can form in a shrinking cloud in which gravitational contractions occur faster than in the surroundings (gravitational instabilities). From these individual districts, protostars are formed and finally stars, which usually form in groups. |
Thermonuclear reactions as a
source of energy for stars
a) direct proton-proton reaction (p = 1 H)
1st partial reaction: 1 H + 1 H ® 2 D + e +
+ n (+
1.44 MeV)
2nd partial reaction: 2 D + 1
H ® 3
He + g (+
5.49 MeV)
3rd part Reaction: 3 He + 3 He ® 4 He +
2 1 H (+ 12.85 MeV)
Total energy balance: release 26.2 MeV = 4.2.10 -12 J / core He
b) CNO cycle
1st partial reaction: 12 C + 1 H ® 13 N + g (+ 1.95 MeV)
2nd partial
reaction: 13 N ® 13 C +
e + + n (+ 2.22 MeV)
3rd partial reaction: 13 C + 1
H ® 14
N + g (+
7.54 MeV)
4th partial reaction: 14 N + 1
H ® 15
O + g (+
7.35 MeV)
5th partial reaction: 15 O ® 15 N +
e + + n (+ 2.71 MeV)
6th partial
reaction: 15 N + 1 H ® 12 C +
4 He (+ 4.96 MeV)
Total energy balance: release 25.0 MeV = 4.0.10 -12 J /1 core He
General :
The binding energy of each proton in the He nucleus is
0.007 m 0 c 2
Þ Thermonuclear hydrogen
combustion efficiency: » 0.007 m 0 c 2 ( » 0.7% )
4 He + 4 He ® 8 Be +
g
8 Be + 4 He ®
12 C + g (+ 7.4 MeV)
May continue at rising temperature: (if there is still enough helium)
12 C + a ® 16 O + g (+ 7.15 MeV)
16 O + a ® 20 Ne + g
(+ 4.75 MeV)
20 Ne + a ® 24 Mg + g
(+ 9.31 MeV)
etc. ......
¨ a - process: the capture of particles a , reacting ( a , g ) - typically up to 40 Ca
¨ neutron capture ; subsequent b
- - decay :
N A Z + n 0 ® N + 1 B Z
+ g ; N
+ 1 B Z (b -
) ® N + 1 C Z + 1 +
e - + g
Slow capture n0 (s-process -
proceeds slower than b-decay); - up to N = 210
Rapid capture of neutrons
(so-called r -process - repeated
capture, faster than b-decay); - mostly
in the final stages and during a
supernova explosion
(and also in the nucleonization of neutron
matter ejected during neutron star collisions)
...
Light stars : |
The
thermonuclear reaction ends with lighter elements (eg
Mg). The synthesized elements remain gravitationally trapped inside the white dwarf - not relevant for cosmic nucleosynthesis - |
Massive stars (M > 6M ¤ ) : |
The whole
sequence of thermonuclides takes place reactions up to
iron. Supernova explosion Þ ejection of synthesized elements + formation of heavy elements - driving force of cosmic nucleosynthesis - |
Nucleosynthesis to Fe - exothermic process
Nucleosynthesis over Fe - endothermic reactions - up
to the final stage of stars
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H 1 |
ß upper layers of a star à | He 2 |
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3 |
4 |
ß middle layer of the star à | 5 |
C 6 |
N 7 |
O 8 |
F 9 |
Ne 10 |
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Na 11 |
Mg 12 |
å centrum area of star c | Al 13 |
Si 14 |
P 15 |
S 16 |
Cl 17 |
Ar 18 |
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K 19 |
Ca 20 |
Sc 21 |
Ti 22 |
V 23 |
Cr 24 |
Mn 25 |
Fe 26 |
Co 27 |
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Stars - alchemical cauldrons of space |
How do the
heavier elements "cooked" by the star get into the
surrounding universe ?
or
The final stages of the life of the stars
White dwarf (if the remaining mass of the star is < 1.5 Sun)
End of a massive star: M Supernova explosion
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Supernova explosion observed in 1054 in China | Today, a Crab Nebula containing a pulsar inside - a rapidly rotating neutron star - is observed at that place |
H 1 |
Supernova explosion: | He 2 |
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Li 3 |
Be 4 |
the emergence of even the heaviest elements | B 5 |
C 6 |
N 7 |
O 8 |
F 9 |
Ne 10 |
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Na 11 |
Mg 12 |
(incl. transurans and radioactive isotopes) | Al 13 |
Si 14 |
P 15 |
S 16 |
Cl 17 |
Ar 18 |
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K 19 |
Ca 20 |
Sc 21 |
Ti 22 |
V 23 |
Cr 24 |
Mn 25 |
Fe 26 |
Co 27 |
Ni 28 |
Cu 29 |
Zn 30 |
Ga 31 |
Ge 32 |
As 33 |
Se 34 |
Br 35 |
Kr 36 |
Rb 37 |
Sr 38 |
Y 39 |
Zr 40 |
Nb 41 |
Mo 42 |
Tc 43 |
Ru 44 |
Rh 45 |
Pd 46 |
Ag 47 |
Cd 48 |
In 49 |
Sn 50 |
Sb 51 |
Te 52 |
I 53 |
Xe 54 |
Cs 55 |
Ba 56 |
La .. î |
Hf 72 |
Ta 73 |
W 74 |
Re 75 |
Os 76 |
Ir 77 |
Pt 78 |
Au 79 |
Hg 80 |
Tl 81 |
Pb 82 |
Bi 83 |
Mon 84 |
At 85 |
Rn 86 |
Fr 87 |
Ra 88 |
Ak .. î |
Rf 104 |
Db 105 |
Sg 106 |
Bh 107 |
Hs 108 |
Mt 109 |
Ds 110 |
Rg 111 |
Uub 112 |
Uut 113 |
Uuq 114 |
Up 115 |
Uuh 116 |
New 117 |
Uuo 118 |
+ other heavier nuclei +
many radioactive isotopes of all nuclei (only stable elements and radioactive ones with only T 1/2 > 10 8 years have been preserved ) |
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The nthanoids: | La 57 |
Ce 58 |
Pr 59 |
Nd 60 |
Pm 61 |
Sm 62 |
Eu 63 |
Gd 64 |
Tb 65 |
Dy 66 |
Ho 67 |
Er 68 |
Tm 69 |
Yb 70 |
Lu 71 |
||
If tinoids: | Ac 89 |
Th 90 |
Pa 91 |
U 92 |
Np 93 |
Pu 94 |
Am 95 |
Cm 96 |
Bk 97 |
Cf 98 |
Es 99 |
Fm 100 |
Md 101 |
No 102 |
Lr 103 |
Fusion
of neutronon stars
Another way of creating heavier elements in space
occurs with the close orbit of two neutron stars
and their merging - fusion, "collision". In this
process, a large amount of neutron matter is ejected,
which immediately "nucleonizes"
to form atomic nuclei (§4.8, passage "Collisions
and fusions of neutron stars"):
This creates a large number of cores, with a relatively higher
proportion of heavy elements. Due to the huge
number of neutrons, the r-process of rapid
repeated neutron capture by lighter nuclei takes
place intensively, during which very heavy nuclei
are also effectively formed - from the area around iridium,
platinum, gold, to a group of uranium.
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Relative abundance of elements in
nature depending on their proton (atomic) number Z,
related to hydrogen Z = 1. Above: The current average representation of elements in space. Bottom: Occurrence of elements on Earth (in the Earth's crust) and terrestrial planets. Due to the large range of values, the relative representation of the elements (relative to hydrogen Z = 1) on the vertical axis is plotted on a logarithmic scale; however, this can optically distort a large difference in the representation of hydrogen and helium compared to heavier elements, especially in the upper graph. |
In terms of origin , all elements can be divided into 3 groups :
General mass distribution: |
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|
We are dealing here with the evolution of baryon matter composed of protons, neutrons and electrons
Evolution of matter: |
Physical stage | Nuclear-chemical stage | Chemical stage | Biological stage |
Origin of the universe - big bang 4 physical interactions Origin of fields and particles Gravity - structure of the universe |
Nuclear reactions of particles Nucleosynthesis of elements Expansion of elements into space |
Recombination - formation of atoms - Formation of compounds |
Hydrocarbon reactions Pre-biotic reactions Cell formation Evolution of organisms |
We
are all descendants of the stars! " Every atom of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ... etc., in our body once formed inside an ancient star - (now already burnt out, partly exploded, or collapsed into a neutron star or black hole) |
Earthly destinies of elements :
Formation
of the solar system and planet Earth
ß
selection mechanisms Þ
other relative
representation of elements in our nature
Gravitational selection factor: higher proportion of heavier elements on planets
|
Helium -
element of the Sun God |
He - the second most abundant
element in the universe (25%)
Inert light gas, the gravity of the Earth will not keep it Þ rare on
Earth.
First discovered not on Earth but on the Sun! - ( Helios = ancient Greek sun god
).
( P.Janssen 1868 - the spectral lines of
sunlight - unknown "solar" feature)
All helium on earth has secondary origin: originated by a-radioactivity
uranium and thorium
(accumulates in underground premises, along with natural gas)
Time
selection factor: all radioactive nuclei with
T 1/2 <10 8 years have already decayed
(potassium 40 K, thorium 232 Th, uranium 235,238 U - primary
radionuclides have been preserved )
>
Rare and
artificial elements >
Actinides (except thorium and uranium), especially transurans ® radioactive Þ have not been preserved;
they are produced artificially by nuclear reactions
.
Discoveries of new transurans - up to Z = 118 (ununoctium).
Exception from the middle of Medeleev's table: technetium Tc 43 -
does not have a stable isotope.
All these elements are now created artificially
- in nuclear reactors or accelerators.
Cosmogenic
elements
interactions of cosmic
rays with interstellar matter and
that the earth's atmosphere, there are a number of
nuclear reactions Þ produced cosmogenic
elements .
Cosmogenic elements: deuterium , lithium , beryllium , boron - formed by fission of heavier nuclei by hard cosmic
radiation
Cosmogenic radionuclides: carbon
14 C
, tritium 3 H (+ trace amount 7.10 Be, 32
P, 35 S, 36
Cl)
Appendix 1: Black holes
At M > 2 M ¤ : Complete relativistic gravitational
collapse Þ black hole
The theorem " black hole has no hair "
Quantum evaporation
of a black hole (Hawkin 's process)
The Black Hole ® is where nuclear physics ends !
The physics of black holes is discussed
in detail in Chapter 4 " Black Holes " of the book " Gravity,
Black Holes and the Physics of Spacetime
".
Appendix 2: Microphysics and
cosmology
4 types of interactions in nature :
The speculative question :
What
would happen if God canceled (" turned off ") different types of
interactions?
For a more detailed discussion, see the passage" 4
types of interactions in nature
", chapter 5" Elementary particles ", in the
treatise" Nuclear physics and physics of ionizing radiation ".
Relationship between
microphysics and cosmology :
Relativistic cosmology is discussed in
detail in Chapter 4 " Cosmology " of the book " Gravity,
Black Holes and the Physics of Spacetime
".
Unitary theory of fields and particles is discussed in Chapter B
"Unitary Unitary
theory of fields " of the same
monograph.
Gravity, black holes and space-time physics : | ||
Gravity in physics | General theory of relativity | Geometry and topology |
Black holes | Relativistic cosmology | Unitary field theory |
Anthropic principle or cosmic God | ||
Nuclear physics and physics of ionizing radiation | ||
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